April 6-13, 2004 Classes #19-21

1. General Psych 2States of Consciousness: Hypnosis – Module 18 Drugs and Consciousness – Module 19 April 6-13, 2004 Classes #19-21

2. Hypnosis • An altered state of consciousness brought on by special techniques and that produces responsiveness to suggestions for changes in experience and behavior • Probably around since antiquity, the rediscovery of hypnosis is commonly credited to Franz Anton Mesmer

3. Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) • Mesmer would pass magnets over the bodies of ailing people, some of who would lapse into a trancelike state and then awaken much improved • At the time many thought Mesmer’s work was linked to quackery… • Today skepticism remains as books on hypnosis is often grouped with those on parapsychology, ghosts, and witchcraft • Nevertheless, most psychologists believe it to be a respectable topic for scientific study

4. Can hypnosis work on anyone?Can you be hypnotized against your will? • Hypnotic Susceptibility • Degree to which a person responds to hypnotic suggestions • Willingness to be hypnotized is most important factor • A key quality of hypnotically susceptible people is if they can become deeply absorbed in imaginative activities (Fantasy-prone personalities) • Stanford Hypnotic Suggestibility Scale

5. Can hypnosis enhance the recall of forgotten events? • Can hypnosis help you to retrieve forgotten or suppressed details of a crime? • Can hypnosis help you to recall kindergarten classmates? • Can hypnosis alleviate pain? • There is some controversy surrounding these questions…

6. 1976 Bus Kidnapping (Chowchilla, CA) • On July 15, 1976 a busload of children aged 5-14 and their school bus driver, Ed Ray (then 55 years of age) were abducted… • 19 girls and 7 boys were forced into two vans, driven around for 11 hours and then forced into a moving van buried in a nearby rock quarry • After 16 hours they dug themselves out • After the rescue, Ray mentioned that he had seen a license plate of one of the vans but couldn’t recall any of the numbers • Under hypnosis, he was able to recall all but one of the digits – with this crucial information the kidnappers were tracked down

7. Unfortunately… • Most hypnotized witnesses respond with new but incorrect information • It appears that hypnosis can impair recall at least as often as it can improve it

8. Can hypnosis force people to act against their will??? • Orne and Evans (1965) • 18 college students put randomly into one of three groups… • Group 1: Hypnotized • Group 2: Not hypnotized but asked to pretend • Group 3: Just asked to participate in experiment

9. Orne and Evans (1965) • All three groups were asked to perform the following acts: • Pick up a poisonous snake • Put hands in fuming nitric acid • Throw acid in the face of one of the researchers • What do you think happened?

10. Lets look at age regression… • Is it real? • True (1949): this researcher says yes • Orne (1982): this researcher says no

11. Can hypnosis alleviate pain? • Yes – this has been clearly established in experiments… • Hypnotized subjects report far less pain than others when their arms are placed in ice water

12. Why? • 2 Theories • Selective Attention Theory • Dissociation Theory

13. Selective Attention Theory • We feel little or no pain because our thoughts are away from it – like an injured athlete who still completes the play…

14. Dissociation Theory: A divided consciousness? • A dissociation or split between different levels of consciousness – dissociating the sensation of pain with our emotional suffering • Hilgard (1986) • “the hidden observer”

15. Reports of Pain in Hypnosis

16. Is hypnosis an altered state of consciousness? • Some psychologists say yes • It is a special state of consciousness characterized by a greatly increased suggestibility • Other psychologists say no • They emphasize similarities between a hypnotic state and a wakeful, conscious state • There is an awareness of surroundings and others • A social influence as well??? • If they like and trust hypnotist they feel motivated to do well • Some say the subjects are faking it and others say they are controlled by the hypnotist…you make the call

17. Drugs and Consciousness:Altering consciousness with drugs • In this final section on states of consciousness, we will discuss some of the chemicals that alter consciousness by inducing changes in perception, mood, or behavior • Because of their ability to alter psychological processes, these chemicals are referred to as psychoactive drugs

18. Altering consciousness with drugs… • Psychoactive drugs are taken to achieve a state of consciousness the user considers to be positive, pleasant, even euphoric • No reasonable person would take a drug because he or she expected to have a negative or unpleasant experience • Unfortunately, this is sometimes the case

19. Psychoactive Drugs • Any substance that alters: • Mood • Awareness of the external environment • Awareness of the internal environment • Examples: • Marijuana, LSD, cocaine, heroine, alcohol, nicotine, codeine, caffeine, etc.

20. Factors that influence the effects of drugs • Dose-dependent effects • The amount of the drug influences its effect • Its intensity • The kind of effect it has on the person • Tolerance • Refers to the lessened effect the drug will produce with continued usage • Cross-tolerance • Can sometimes occur when one takes a certain drug that then produces a tolerance in another drug of that type • Example: alcohol can produce a tolerance for antianxiety drugs

21. Factors that influence the effects of drugs • Interaction effects • The effects of some drugs can be drastically altered if they are taken in combination with other drugs • The combination is often greater than what one might think the sum of the two drugs would be • Individual differences • Chemical, personality, and experience differences will often cause the same dosage of a drug to produce much different effects depending on the individual who is taking it • Expectations • Psychological factor is often present as individuals sometimes produce the effect that they expect the drug will produce

22. Factors that influence the effects of drugs • Examples • People often get “drunk” on O’Douls • Saline solution often stops pain in those thinking they are receiving a pain killer • Subjects catch fewer colds because they believe they are receiving huge doses of vitamin C, when in fact they are getting only small amounts of powdered sugar. • When the research study ends and they no longer receive the placebo, the number of colds caught has been shown to go back up

23. Types of Psychoactive Drugs • Depressants • Reduce physiological arousal and help individuals to relax • Opiates • Have the effect of dulling or numbing the senses • Can produce a sleeplike state • Stimulants • Increase arousal • Produce states of arousal • Hallucinogens • Distort sensory experience

24. Depressants • Alcohol • Barbituates • Benzodiazephines

25. Alcohol • Alcohol is a depressant yet we often feel lively after a couple of drinks… • It gives this feeling by slowing down the brain centers that control judgments and inhibitions

26. Curious Effects • Memory • Sex • Hangover

27. Alcoholism • Refers to one’s dependence on alcohol that seriously interferes with one’s life • Most common and costly form of drug abuse in U.S. • Aproximately 7% of adults 18 and over (10M people) • Traditionally more common (about 2 to 1) among males but recent research suggests that women are closing this gap

28. Detrimental Effects • Life span of average alcoholic is 12 years shorter than the norm • Alcoholism ranks as the third leading cause of death in U.S. • More than one-third suffer at least one coexisting mental disorder • Organic impairment such as brain shrinkage occurs in a high proportion of alcoholics • About 20% attempt suicide • About 10% are successful

29. Symptoms of Alcohol Dependence • Use alcohol to boost self-confidence and to relax around others • Drink to forget their problems or to relieve stress • Often are the ones who want “one more” drink even when their friends have stopped drinking • After friends have left they drink with new friends…often close the bar…stay past last call • Get drunk without planning to • Have blackouts

30. Symptoms of Alcohol Dependence • Lie about their drinking, try to hide it, sneak drinks at work or school • Drink in the morning to cure a hangover • May begin to have financial, work, or family problems • Complete loss of control

31. Treatments • Rehab Centers • Treatment centers where the addict is supervised 24/7 • Supervised detoxification period to eliminate drugs from our bodies system • Alcoholics Anonymous • Self-help group • Little research because of members anonymity but indications are most don’t stick to it • Need to go to regular meetings for it to work • 90 meetings in first 90 days and then at least once per week after that • Antabuse • A type of aversion therapy where usually a pill is taken that will cause the patient to become sick whenever they drink alcohol

32. Barbiturates • Barbiturates are powerful depressants that slow down the central nervous system • Classified as sedative/hypnotics • Once a very commonly used tranquilizer but because they are highly habit-forming their usage decreased • They have effects similar to alcohol • They depress sympathetic nervous system activity • They have been used to induce sleep and reduce anxiety • In large doses, can lead to impaired memory and judgment

33. Barbiturates • Barbiturates and other sedative/hypnotics are medically prescribed to treat sleeplessness, anxiety, and tension, and to help prevent or mitigate epileptic seizures • Certain barbiturates are also used to induce anesthesia for short surgical procedures or at the beginning of longer ones • Because of the risks associated with barbiturate abuse, and because new and safer drugs such as the benzodiazepines are now available, barbiturates are less frequently prescribed than in the past • Nonetheless, they are still available both on prescription and illegally • Other names: barbs, barbies, downers, goofballs

34. Barbiturates • In low doses, barbiturates have a tranquilizing effect • Increased doses are hypnotic or sleep-inducing • still larger doses act as anticonvulsants and anesthetics • Barbiturates have been widely used as sleeping pills…such use may lead to… • psychological dependency • physiological tolerance • death by overdose (often the drug of choice for those attempting suicide) • Barbiturates do not relieve pain

35. Barbiturates • What it feels like… • Relaxation, peacefulness, sleepiness, pleasurable intoxication, dizziness, inactivity, withdrawal, interrupted thought processes, mood swing, excitement, increased pain, hostility, depression, anxiety, confusion, changed vision, intense emotions, hangover • Barbituates give a quick “high” but the effects drop off and persist for a low level for a longer duration

36. Barbiturates • Besides having therapeutic uses, barbiturates are often used for their pleasurably intoxicating effects • Some people take them in addition to alcohol, or as a substitute • Heavy users of other drugs sometimes turn to them if their usual drugs are not available, or to counteract the effects of large doses of stimulants such as amphetamines or cocaine

37. Barbiturates • Non-medical users often start taking barbiturates at doses within a safe therapeutic range • As tolerance develops, however, they progressively increase their daily dose to many times the original • It is extremely important to note that in spite of acquiring tolerance to the intoxicating effects of barbiturates, the user develops no tolerance to the lethal action of the drug • Therefore, high doses could produce fatal results even for tolerant abusers • Taking barbiturates with other CNS depressants… • e.g. alcohol; tranquillizers; such opioids as heroin, morphine, meperidine (Demerol), codeine, or methadone; and antihistamines (found in cold, cough, and allergy remedies) can be extremely dangerous, even lethal

38. Benzodiazepines • Benzodiazepines (commonly referred to as benzos) are a more recent generation of tranquilizers • Some of the more common benzodiazepines are: ativan, librium, valium, and xanax • They are usually prescribed by doctors to treat anxiety and sleep problems, they can also, be used to treat panic disorders and muscle spasms, and occasionally used in the treatment of epilepsy and alcohol withdrawal

39. Benzodiazepines • Heroin users tend to use benzos to help them sleep or when they're trying to get off heroin • Speed and ecstasy users use them to help them sleep or when they're 'coming down‘ • Some people use them as their drug of choice. • Benzodiazepines affect the central nervous system • Like alcohol and heroin they are depressants, and slowdown responses such as respiration, heart rate, etc.

40. Short-Term Effects • Relaxation • Drowsiness • Dizziness • Confusion • Mood swings

41. Common Long-term Effects • Lethargy • Irritability • Nausea • Loss of sexual interest • Increased appetite • Increased weight

42. Opiates • Derived from opium these drugs depress CNS functioning • Include: opium, morphine, codeine, and heroin • Have the effect of dulling or numbing the senses… • Pupils constrict • Breathing slows • User becomes lethargic • For a few hours, such things as pain and anxiety are replaced by blissful pleasure

43. But for bliss you pay the price… • Unfortunately, the bliss is eventually replaced by a gnawing craving for another fix • The need for progressively larger doses will lead to the physical anguish of withdrawal if use is discontinued • If the user has taken opiates regularly, the withdrawal symptoms may appear after only a few hours have passed since the last dose and peak after 2-3 days • The symptoms include aches, nausea, fever, trembling, convulsions, sweating and shivering. • For some…the ultimate price to pay is death by overdose

44. But for bliss you pay the price… • The path to addiction is insidious… • When repeatedly flooded with these artificial opiates – the brain stops producing its own natural opiates (endorphins) • So, when the drug is withdrawn, the brain lacks the normal level of these painkilling neurotransmitters • The result is the raw agony of withdrawal

45. Opiates • Opiates can be divided into natural and synthetic opiates • Natural opiates are derived from the opium poppy • Morphine and codeine are made from raw opium and can further be refined into heroin • Synthetic opiates include methadone and pethidine • Opiates have been used as medicines for a long time • Today, morphine is used as a pain relief • Example: for terminally ill cancer patients • Certain cough medicines and pain killers contain codeine

46. On the street… • Opium is sold as dark brown lumps or powder • It is usually eaten or smoked • Heroin, when sold at street, is usually diluted with other powders (often with glucose) and its color varies from white to brown • The mixes contain a very varying amount of pure heroin • Heroin can be taken orally, intravenously or it can be smoked • Narcotic pain killers are sold as capsules, tablets, liquid or suppositories

47. Its effects… • The effects of opiates, like those of other intoxicants, depend on: • The user's state of mind and on the company the user is in • Whether an opiate is used on its own or together with other intoxicants • Whether the user is a novice or an experienced user also has an influence on the effects of the drug

48. Effects can be dangerous… • Immediately after taking the drug the user will experience a rush of euphoria • Feelings of hunger and pain are suppressed, along with sexual desire • Novice users may also feel nauseous and restless • Higher doses will make the user feel warm, his limbs feel heavy and his mouth dry • The user will feel alternately alert and drowsy…

49. Effects can be dangerous… • At even higher doses the pupils become constricted and the skin feels cold and clammy and turns bluish • A fatal respiratory failure may develop • There is always a danger of an overdose when the drug is bought on the street as it is very difficult to determine how strong the mixture is

50. Stimulants • Increase arousal and cause states of euphoria that are generally referred to as highs • The two most powerful that are abused: • Amphetamines • Cocaine