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NBER conference on Europe and the Euro, Milan, O ctober 17-18, 2008 Alberto Alesina & Francesco Giavazzi, Organizers

The estimated effects of the euro on trade: Why are they below historical evidence on effects of monetary unions among smaller countries? Prof. Jeffrey Frankel, Harvard University.

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NBER conference on Europe and the Euro, Milan, O ctober 17-18, 2008 Alberto Alesina & Francesco Giavazzi, Organizers

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  1. The estimated effects of the euro on trade: Why are they below historical evidenceon effects of monetary unionsamong smaller countries?Prof. Jeffrey Frankel, Harvard University NBER conference on Europe and the Euro,Milan, October 17-18, 2008Alberto Alesina &Francesco Giavazzi,Organizers

  2. Introduction: The status of the Rose finding and of the first trade effects of the euro To be discussed: • Rose’s (2000) famous gravity-model estimate: monetary unions triple trade among members. • Critiques of Rose • First post-1999 results on effects of the € on European trade patterns. • The key question: what explains the smaller effects of the € to date relative to historical estimates • Country size? • Gradual adjustment over time? • Spuriously high previous estimates? • Approach of this paper

  3. Rose, “One Money, One Market” • Probably the most influential empirical paper in the field in the last decade • The research was motivated by the coming EMU, • but estimates were based on historical data from much smaller countries. • Findings • MU => tripling of trade among members • Fixed exchange rate in itself also => statistically significant increase in trade

  4. Link to “Growth theme” of first part of Dubrovnik conference • Total trade/GDP is estimated to rise when a country joins a monetary union. • Combined with theories and empirical findings regarding the effect of trade on growth, the implication is a positive effect on growth. • Frankel & Rose, QJE, 2002 • Sample estimate: If Poland joins the euro openness eventually doubles, and income then rises 40% over the subsequent 20 years.

  5. Four critiques of Rose, e.g., survey by Baldwin (2006)1/ and Critique of the critiques, e.g., response by Frankel (2006) • Small-country results may not apply to large countries. Response: There has been no evidence of MU effect varying with size. 2/ Admittedly no big countries were in MUs, pre-1999. 1/Richard Baldwin, “The Euro’s Trade Effects,” in What effects is EMU having on the euro area and its member countries?,”ECB, Frankfurt, 2006. 2/J. Frankel & A. Rose, QJE, 2002.

  6. Critiques,continued 2. Gross magnitudes • Tripling “seems too large to be believable.” • Van Wincoop critique: Re-parameterizing the gravity-based estimate to fit a theoretical model cuts the magnitude of the MU estimate below “x3.”1/ Response -- But the effect remains: • Statistically significant • On the same order of magnitude • as the estimated effects of FTA,and • as the estimated effects of borders(home bias), e.g., Canada-US 2/ • Greater than thought 10 years ago. 1/ Rose & van Wincoop (2001): trade barriers are halved when joining MU.€ => ∆ trade >50%. 2/ McCallum (1995), Helliwell (1998), Wei (1996), and Nitsch (1990, 1991)

  7. Critiques,continued 3. Endogeneity of the MU decision Response: • Rose controlled for many third-variable determinants of trade & MU (colonial past, etc.), which should reduce endogeneity. • Some alleged cures worse than the disease -- They either use poor instruments, or throw out the data-baby with the bathwater. But endogeneity remains a likely problem: What if the observed correlation arises because pairs that trade for each other (for reasons not captured by controls) decide to link currencies on Optimum Currency Area grounds?

  8. Critiques,concluded 4. Cross-section comparative statics ≠ time series experiments Response: Glick & Rose (2002), with a 1948–97 sample that includes countries that exited MUs, found trade among members twice as high in the currency union period as in the subsequent 30 years..[1] [1] Lags in adjustement of trade in gravity models may be longer than 30 years. Eichengreen and Irwin (1998), Frankel (1997) .

  9. First post-1999 results on effects of the € on European trade patterns Micco, Ordonez & Stein (2003): for pairs of the 1st 12 EMU joiners, trade rose significantly. • ≈ 15 % beyond what could be explained by growth, etc. • a range of 6 - 26 % (depending on dummies),with a larger set of 22 industrialized countries. • “Preferred estimates” (with pair dummies): 4 -16%.

  10. Other studies of € effect on trade • Bun & Klaassen(2002, p.1):“the euro has significantly increased trade, with an effect of 4% in the first year” => a long-run effect ≈ 40 % • Berger & Nitsch (2005) and De Nardis & Vicarelli(2003)report similar positive results. • Flam & Nordström(2006): 26%(1995-98 to 2002-05) • Chintrakarn(2008): 9 to 14%. • Consensus to date: • results in 1st four years significant • but “small”: ≈ 10-20% .

  11. Results on effects of the € on European trade patterns,continued • No trade-diversion from non-members • among MUs in general 1/ • from euro in particular (e.g., effects on UK, Sweden) 2/ • Difficulties disentangling MU from: • customs unions (EU) – UK, Sweden.,Denmark, & the 2005 Ten. • political (dis-) unions, e.g. Czech-Slovak, Yugoslavia, FSU • transition from socialism to capitalism, e.g., Slovenia • Re-orientation away from trade with USSR, e.g., Finland 1/ e.g., Frankel-Rose, 2002 2/Begg, et al (2003), Micco, Stein & Ordoñez (2003), and Flam & Nordström (2006).

  12. The key questions: Are the effects of the € to date still smaller than the historical estimates based on larger sets of smaller countries? If so, is that because: • Time is needed for gradual adjustment? • Small countries ≠ large countries? • Earlier results are biased up by endogeneity?

  13. Approach of this paper • Update gravity estimates of € effect • while also imbedding recent European years in panel data set of other MUs,e.g., from Glick & Rose • Address each of the three thorny problems: • Allow for lagged adjustment • Test explicitly if MU effect declines with country size. • Address endogeneity with a natural experiment.

  14. Special cases to shed light on causality • Ireland’s switch • off of £ in 1979, and onto euro in 1999 • was a valuable example, the largest pre-1999. • But separate trade effect not statistically significant • Because covariance with joining EU was too close(Thom & Walsh, 2002) • and dominated by long-term trend in intra-EU trade (Lane, et al, 2008) • Estimation for Slovenia in 2007, when data permit • will be a valuable example, as the 1st transition country to join €. • But, again, we are unlikely to get enough data to separate out the effects of € from effects of • transition out of Socialist Yugoslavia • joining EU • Also Cyprus and Malta in 2008

  15. Moreover, possible endogeneity is still with us • The decision to join the €, by Slovenias or Irelands, could be misleadingly correlated with shift in trade pattern toward continental Europe, either because: • such a shift is a political goal, encouraged by other means as well, or • trade is shifting direction for natural economic reasons, and policy-makers want to reduce fx costs for importers & exporters.

  16. Reproducing the results in Micco, Ordoñez & Stein (2002) • They estimated the effect of € on trade patterns during 1992-2002, for relatively narrow samples: • Europe or, alternatively, • all industrialized countries. • Table 1 does successfully replicate the results: • pairs of euro countries enjoy greater bilateral trade; • coefficient gradually rises in level & significance, • reaching about 15% in 2002, • after first appearing suddenly significant in 1998. • Why does the effect show up the year before EMU formally goes into effect? • Same with FTAs. • Explanation: businesses seek “first-mover advantage.”

  17. Table 1 -- Effect becomes significant in 1998 Reaches 16% in 2001-02.

  18. Update of results, as 4 more years of data have become available. • The effect of the euro on bilateral trade remains highly significant statistically during the years 2003-2006, • but the point estimate is no longer rising. • Rather, it appears to have leveled off, ≈ 0.15 in the EU-only sample, still very far below the Rose doubling or tripling estimates. • In the sample that includes all developed countries, the euro effect is only ≈ 0.10.

  19. Table 2 -- Effect becomessignificant in 1999 Reaches 16% in 2001 Steady through 2006

  20. Now imbed in the complete data set • 1948-2006 • 200 countries, including • enough data to get sharp estimates of parameters, and • a fair number of monetary unions

  21. Do the effects of monetary union diminish with the size of the countries involved? • Add an interactive size term -- the product of the respective country sizes and the CU dummy variable -- • to see whether CU effects on trade are bigger for small countries than for large countries, so that this might explain the smaller effect in Europe. • Larger countries do not experience smaller boosts to intra-MU trade to a statistically significant extent. • The effect of EMU on bilateral trade remains, even after controlling for size.

  22. Mystery: If neither time lags nor size explainthe gap between 15% and doubling, then what does?

  23. In cross-section, EMU is estimated to increase intra-member trade by 2-3 times, but only when entire data sample is used

  24. We proceed step-by-step from our reproduction of M-O-S, to see at which stage the coefficients change • Table 6 expands the dataset to 1948-2006, a panel with almost 60 years of data, while retaining a separate coefficient to distinguish EMU from others. • The graph reveals that sample size is the crucial difference between MSO & broader estimates. • While estimates of the euro’s effect on trade continue to linger around 10-25% for the developed & EU samples that MSO used, they climb dramatically to .9-1.0 for the full sample • exponentially = 2.5-2.7, almost tripling. • Estimates are highly significant, because there are more data to work with now.

  25. 6-10 years after monetary union, estimated effects on trade from other MUsare virtually the same as from EMU, provided estimation is on full sample of countries/years (1948-2006)

  26. Mystery solved? • We have uncovered the possibility that the large gap is an artifact of the largely non-overlapping historical periods analyzed in the Rose & M-O-S studies (pre- & post-1999, respectively). • Perhaps some parameters such as common border and common language dummies are not estimated well enough on smaller samples, affecting estimates of €-area coefficient. • Estimated trade effects of € as great as trade effects of non-EMU CUs. • Moreover, the estimated coefficient of EMU > coefficient for EU or other FTAs !

  27. But could all estimates of CU effects be biased upwards due to endogeneity of the currency decision? • As our last task, we address endogeneity.

  28. A natural experiment:The effects of the French franc’s conversion to € on bilateral trade of African CFA members. • The long-time link of CFA currencies to the F franc has clearly always had a political motivation. • So CFA trade with France could not reliably be attributed to currency link, • perhaps even after controlling for common language, former colonial status, etc. • But in Jan. 1999, 14 CFA countries suddenly found themselves with the same currency link to Germany, Austria, Finland, Portugal, etc. • No economic/political motivation. A natural experiment. • If CFA trade with these other countries has risen, that suggests a € effect that we can declare causal.

  29. Results of CFA experiment • Table 7. • The dummy variable representing when one partner is a CFA country and the other a € country has a highly significant coefficient of .57. • Taking the exponent, the point estimate is that the euro boosts bilateral trade between the relevant African and € countries by 76%.

  30. Conclusions • Update of first estimates of effect of € on intra-EMU trade shows the coefficient in 2003-2006 remained significant and steady at the level attained in 2001-02. • But it didn’t continue to rise. No evidence that lags explain the big gap between effect of € (15%) and earlier estimates of effects of other Monetary Unions (x2 or x3) • There is also no evidence that the gap is explained by a MU effect that diminishes with country size. • The natural experiment of the CFA suggests that the high estimates of effects among small or poor countries have not resulted from endogeneity of currency decisions. • Solution to the mystery? • Apparently the additional data from the full data set is necessary for accurate estimates of the parameters. • Perhaps the € effect is as large as effects of other MUs after all; • but the mystery is not yet completely solved.

  31. References • Anderson, James and Eric van Wincoop, 2001, “Gravity with gravitas: a solution to the border puzzle,” American Economic Review. • Begg, David, et al, 2003, The Consequences of Saying No,An Independent Report into the Economic Consequences of the UK Saying No to the Euro, Commission on the UK Outside the Euro, London. • Bun, Maurice, and Franc Klaassen, 2002, “Has the Euro Increased Trade?” (unpublished; Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam). Tinber­gen Institute Discussion Paper, TI 2002-108/2. Available via the Internet: http://www.eabcn.org/research/documents/bun_klaasen02.pdf • Chintrakarn, Pandej, 2008, “Estimating the Euro Effects on Trade with Propensity Score Matching,” Review of Int. Econ., Feb. • De Nardis, Sergio and Claudio Vicarelli (2003) “Currency Unions and Trade: The Special Case of EMU”, World Review of Economics, 139 (4). • Eichengreen, Barry, and Douglas Irwin. 1998, “The Role of History in Bilateral Trade Flows,” The Regionalization of the World Economy,J. Frankel,,ed. • Dwane, Christine, Philip R. Lane and Tara McIndoe, 2008, “Currency Unions and Irish External Trade” forthcoming, Applied Economics. • Flam, Harry, and Hakan Nordstrom, 2003, “Trade Volume Effects of the Euro: Aggregate and Sector Estimates,” IIES, Stockholm. • Frankel, Jeffrey, 1997, Regional Trading Blocs in the World Trading System (Washington: Institute for International Economics). • ———, 2003, “The UK Decision re EMU: Implications of Currency Blocs for Trade and Business Cycle Correlations,” in Submissions on EMU from Leading Academics (London; H.M. Treasury). • --------- “Real Convergence and Euro Adoption in Central and Eastern Europe: Trade and Business Cycle Correlations as Endogenous Criteria for Joining EMU,” Conference on Euro Adoption in the Accession Countries – Opportunities and Challenges, International Monetary Fund, edited by Susan Schadler. • Frankel, Jeffrey, and Andrew Rose, 2002, “An Estimate of the Effect of Common Currencies on Trade and Income,” Quarterly J. of Econ., May. • Glick, Reuven, and Andrew Rose, 2002, “Does a Currency Union Affect Trade? The Time Series Evidence,” European Econ. Review, Vol. 46 June. • Helliwell, John, 1998, How Much Do National Borders Matter? (Washington: Brookings Institution Press). • Klein, Michael, 2002, “Dollarization and Trade.” NBER working paper 8879, April. • McCallum, John, 1995, “National Borders Matter: Canada-U.S. Regional Trade Patterns,” American Economic Review, 85 (June), pp. 615–23. • Micco, Alejandro, Ernesto Stein, and Guillermo Ordoñez, 2002, Should the UK Join EMU? (Washington: Inter-American Development Bank). ___, 2003, “The Currency Union Effect on Trade: Early Evidence from EMU,” Economic Policy, Vol. 18(October),pp. 315–43. • Nitsch, Volker, 1991, National Borders and International Trade: Evidence from the European Union (Berlin: Bankgesellschaft). • ____ 2000, “National Borders and International Trade: Evidence from the European Union,“ Canadian Journal of Economics, Nov.. • ____, 2001, “Honey, I Shrunk the Currency Union Effect on Trade,” Bankgesellshaft Berlin, May. • Pakko, Michael and Howard Wall, 2001, “Reconsidering the Trade-Creating Effects of a Currency Union”, Fed.Res.Bank of St. Louis Review, 83-5. • Parsley, David, and Shang-Jin Wei, 2001, “Explaining the Border Effect: The Role of Exchange Rate Variability, Shipping Costs, and Geography,” Journal of International Economics,Vol. 55 (October), 87-105. • Rose, Andrew, 2000, “One Money, One Market: Estimating The Effect of Common Currencies on Trade,” Economic Policy, Vol. 15 (April), 7-45. • ———, 2001, “Currency Unions and Trade: The Effect Is Large,” Economic Policy, (October) 33, 449-461. • _____, 2004, “A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Common Currencies on International Trade,” NBER WP no. 10373, March. • Rose, Andrew K. and E. van Wincoop (2001) “National Money as a Barrier to Trade: The Real Case for Monetary Union”, Amer.Econ.Rev 91-2. • Tenreyro, Sylvana, 2001, “On the Causes and Consequences of Currency Unions,” Harvard University. • Thom, Rodney, and Brendan Walsh, 2002, “The Effect of a Common Currency on Trade: Ireland Before and After the Sterling Link,” European Econ. Rev., June.

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