Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Correlational Research Explanatory Research

1. “A man is least himself when he talks in his own person; when given a mask he will tell the truth.” --- Oscar Wilde

2. What Did We Learn In The Previous Lecture? Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Correlational Research Explanatory Research

4. Qualitative Research

5. Qualitative Research ‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they say they feel. This kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather than numbers’ (Bellenger, Bernhardt and Goldstucker, Qualitative Research in Marketing, American Marketing Association )

6. Definitions • Findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or quantification (Source: Strauss and Corbin 1990) • … qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomenon in terms of the meanings people bring to them. (Source: Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, p.3)

7. The qualitative researcher is interested in illumination and understanding NOT causal determination or prediction. • They look beyond the façade, the superficial, to search for purpose, meaning and context. • Phenomena have meaning in a context and their meaning differs in different contexts. Helps us capture the ways in which people interpret events, experiences and relationships (lived experiences).

8. Purpose of Qualitative Research • Why do people do the things they do? • What makes an organization functional or dysfunctional? • What effects behavior, systems and relationships over time?

9. Why Qualitative Approaches? “Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts” (Albert Einstein) “Welcome aboard, BOB, your job is to figure out what the hell happened here…………………….”

10. Example: Smoking And Lung Cancer • Research has established the association b/t smoking and lung cancer • Qualitative methodology helps to explain: • The power of tobacco companies and advertising • Reasons why people continue to smoke despite the evidence • Social meaning of smoking (e.g among women and the youth)

11. Limitations of Qualitative Research • It is anecdotal (stories told for dramatic quality without critical evaluation) • Unscientific • Producing findings that are not generalisable • Impressionistic • Subjective

12. Methodologies Of Qualitative Research

14. What Is A Methodology? • ‘Logos’ in Greek means ‘knowledge of’. • Methodology can be described as the knowledge of methods. • In science and technology there is not a single method that leads to the solution of a problem. • Methodology can properly refer to the theoretical analysis of the methods appropriate to a field of study or to the body of methods and principles particular to a branch of knowledge.

15. What is a Method then? Method A way of doing something, especially a systematic way; implies an orderly logical arrangement (usually in steps) Methodology • The branch of philosophy that analyzes the principles and procedures of inquiry in a particular discipline • The system of methods followed in a particular discipline

16. Some Possible Methodologies • Ethnography • Phenomenology • Ethnology • Biography etc • Experimental • Quasi experimental • Action Research • Case Study • Surveys

17. Possible Methods • Observation • Interviews • Focus groups • Questionnaires • Surveys • Structured • Time lapsed • Frequencies etc • Diaries • Scales & Tests • Documentation • Video and audio • Recording, etc

18. Methodologies Of Qualitative Research • Action Research • Case Study • Ethnography • Grounded Theory • Phenomenology

19. Action Research

20. History of development within social psychology • Places researchers in a ’helping-role’ • Diagnosing a problem, action planning, action taking implementing and evaluating outcomes. Evaluation leads to a new diagnosis… • Contribution to the practical concerns • Joint collaboration with the people experiencing the problem • Contextuality and participation

21. Case Study

22. Case studies involve in-depth examination of a single instance, event or example: a case. • A case study is an empirical inquiry that: investigates a contemporary instance or event within its real-life context, boundaries between instance, event or example and context are not clearly evident. • Methods: interview, observation, document analysis.

23. Types Of Case Study • Intrinsic • The case itself is of interest • Instrumental Case Study • A particular case is studied to provide insight into an issue or to refine a theory • Collective Case Study • A number of cases are studied jointly in order to investigate a phenomenon (instrumental study extended to several cases)

24. Ethnography

25. Rooted in anthropology • Also called participant observation/ naturalistic enquiry • Ethno = people • Graphy = describing something • Ethnographers are interested in how the behavior of individuals is influenced or mediated by culture in which they live. • Methods: Direct observation, Participant observation, Unstructured Interview, note taking, photo, drawings, documents.

26. Role Of The Observer • Complete observer • Behind one-way mirror, invisible role • Observer as participant • Known, overt observer • Participant as observer • Pseudo-member, research role known • Complete participant • Full membership, research role not known

27. Phenomenology

28. Rooted in philosophy • Central question: what is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon for this person/group of people? • It focuses on individuals' interpretation of their experience and the ways in which they express them. • The researchers task is to describe phenomena as experienced and expressed by individuals. • Method: Interview

30. Grounded Theory

31. Rooted in social sciences • Emphasizes the development of theory • Which is grounded in data systematically collected and analyzed (constant comparative analysis to produce substantive theory) • Theory must be faithful to the evidence • Looks for generalisable theory - by making comparisons across situations • Focus is on patterns of action and interaction • Methods: Interview, Constant comparison, Theoretical sampling

32. Sampling In Qualitative Research

33. Considerations In Sampling • Purpose of qualitative research • Produce information-rich data • Depth rather than breadth • Insight rather than generalisation • Conceptual rather than numerical considerations • Choose information-rich sites and respondents

34. Common Sampling Approach • Purposive sampling • Deviant case sampling • Intensity sampling • Heterogeneous sampling • Homogenous samples • Typical case sampling • Snowball sampling • Opportunistic sampling

35. How big should a sample be? • Sample size is an important consideration in qualitative research.  Typically, researchers want to continue sampling until having achieved informational redundancy or saturation -- the point at which no new information or themes are emerging from the data. • To know if informational redundancy or saturation is reached implies and is founded on the assumption that data collection and analysis are going hand-in-hand.  In other words, data is collected and analyzed, at least in a preliminary fashion, and this analysis informs subsequent data collection decisions.

36. It is important to keep in mind that saturation or informational redudancy can be reached prematurely if: • One's sampling frame is too narrow • One's analytical perspective is skewed or limited • The method employed is not resulting in rich, in depth information • The researcher is unable to get beyond the surface or 'status quo' with respondents • As Sandelowski (1995) points out, "determining adequate sample size in qualitative research is ultimately a matter of judgement and experience" and researchers need to evaluate the quality of the information collected in light of the uses to which it will be put,  and the research method, sampling and analytical strategy employed.

37. Iterative Sampling • Iterative sampling involves a process whereby researchers move back and forth between selecting cases for data collection and engaging in a preliminary analysis of the cases sampled.  • The idea is that what emerges from data analysis will shape subsequent sampling decisions.  • The process of iterative sampling and analysis continues until researchers reach saturation - when no new information or new themes are emerging from data analysis.

38. Considerations In Sample Size • Saturation • Redundancy • Minimum samples based on expected reasonable coverage, given the purpose of the study and constraints

39. Qualitative Data Analysis

40. Stages In Qualitative Data Analysis • Qualitative data analysis is a non-linear / iterative process • Numerous rounds of questioning, reflecting, rephrasing, analysing, theorising, verifying after each observation, interview, or Focus Group Discussion

41. During data collection • Reading – data immersion – reading and re-reading • Coding – listen to the data for emerging themes and begin to attach labels or codes to the texts that represent the themes • After data collection • Displaying – the themes (all information) • Developing hypotheses, questioning and verification • Reducing – from the displayed data identify the main points

42. Interpretation (2 levels) • At all stages – searching for core meanings of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours described • Overall interpretation • Identify how themes relate to each other • Explain how study questions are answered • Explain what the findings mean beyond the context of your study

43. Processes In Qualitative Data Analysis Ninny Eagle, “Tell us if these berries are poisonous.”

44. Processes In Qualitative Data Analysis • Reading / Data immersion • Coding • Displaying data • Developing hypotheses, questioning and verification • Data reduction • Interpretation

45. Reading / Data Immersion 1.1. Read For Content • Are you obtaining the types of information you intended to collect • Identify emergent themes and develop tentative explanations • Note (new / surprising) topics that need to be explored in further fieldwork

46. 1.2. Read Noting The Quality Of The Data • Have you obtained superficial or rich and deep responses • How vivid and detailed are the descriptions of observations • Is there sufficient contextual detail • Problems in the quality of the data require a review of: • How you are asking questions (neutral or leading) • The venue • The composition of the groups • The style and characteristics of the interviewer • How soon after the field activity are notes recorded • Develop a system to identify problems in the data (audit trail)

47. 1.3. Read Identifying Patterns • After identifying themes, examine how these are patterned • Do the themes occur in all or some of the data • Are their relationships between themes • Are there contradictory responses • Are there gaps in understanding – these require further exploration

48. Coding • No standard rules of how to code • Emergent • Borrowed • Record coding decisions • Record codes, definitions, and revisions • Usually - insert codes / labels into the margins • Building theme related files • Cut and paste together into one file similarly coded blocks of text • NB identifiers that help you to identify the original source • Identify sub-themes and explore them in greater depth

49. Displaying Data • Capture the variation or richness of each theme • Note differences between individuals and sub-groups • Return to the data and examine evidence that supports each sub-theme

50. Developing Hypotheses, Questioning And Verification • Extract meaning from the data • Do the categories developed make sense? • What pieces of information contradict my emerging ideas? • What pieces of information are missing or underdeveloped? • What other opinions should be taken into account? • How do my own biases influence the data collection and analysis process?