Understanding Psychology 6 th Edition Charles G. Morris and Albert A. Maisto

1. Understanding Psychology6th EditionCharles G. Morris and Albert A. Maisto PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community College ©Prentice Hall 2003

2. Motivation • Motive: • A specific need, desire, or want, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal-oriented behavior. ©Prentice Hall 2003

3. Perspectives On Motivation • Instinct: • Inborn, inflexible, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species. • Drive: • A state of tension or arousal brought on by biological needs. • Drive-reduction theory: • Motivated behavior is aimed at reducing a drive. ©Prentice Hall 2003

4. Perspectives On Motivation • Primary drive: • A physiologically based unlearned motive, such as hunger. • Homeostasis: • A state of balance and stability in which the organism functions effectively. • Incentive: • An external stimulus that prompts goal-directed behavior. ©Prentice Hall 2003

5. Perspectives On Motivation • Arousal theory • Some psychologists suggest that motivation might have to do with arousal. • Arousal theory suggests that each of us has a optimum level of arousal that varies from one situation to another • Behavior may be motivated by the desire to maintain the optimum level ©Prentice Hall 2003

6. Two Types of Motivation • Intrinsic motivation: • A desire to perform a behavior that originates within the individual. • Extrinsic motivation: • A desire to perform a behavior to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment. ©Prentice Hall 2003

7. The Yerkes-Dodson Law • States there is an optimal level of arousal for the best performance of any task. • The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated before performance deteriorates. ©Prentice Hall 2003

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9. A Hierarchy of Motives • Abraham Maslow suggested that human motives can be arranged in a hierarchy. • Maslow believed higher motives don't emerge until the more basic ones have been met. • Recent research challenges his view. In some societies, difficulty in meeting basic needs can actually foster the satisfaction of higher motives. ©Prentice Hall 2003

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11. Hunger and Thirst ©Prentice Hall 2003

12. Biological and Emotional Factors • Hunger is regulated by several centers within the brain. • These centers are stimulated by receptors monitoring stomach contents, as well as by receptors monitoring the contents of the blood, especially its levels of glucose, fats, and carbohydrates. ©Prentice Hall 2003

13. Control of Hunger • The hypothalamus contains • Hunger center: stimulates eating • Satiety center: stops eating • A fall in the glucose level stimulates neurons in the hunger center and inhibits neurons in the satiety center. ©Prentice Hall 2003

14. Other Factors Contributing to Eating Behavior • Hunger is stimulated by factors outside the body, such as cooking aromas, and by emotional, cultural, and social factors. • Eating disorders, particularly anorexia nervosa and bulimia, are more prevalent among females than among males. • They are characterized by extreme preoccupation with body image and weight. ©Prentice Hall 2003

15. Eating Disorders • Anorexia nervosa: • A serious eating disorder that is associated with an intense fear of weight gain and a distorted body image. • Bulimia: • An eating disorder characterized by binges of eating followed by self-induced purging. ©Prentice Hall 2003

16. Characteristics of Anorexics • The majority are female. • Approximately 90% are white upper or middle-class females. • They are usually successful students and cooperative, well-behaved children. • They have an intense interest in food but view eating with disgust. ©Prentice Hall 2003

17. Four Symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa • Intense, unvarying fear of becoming obese. • Disturbance of body image. • Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimal normal weight. • The absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles. ©Prentice Hall 2003

18. Characteristics of Bulimics • The majority are upper or middle-class females. • Bulimics typically have a lowered self-esteem and have experienced some form of clinical depression prior to the development of bulimia. ©Prentice Hall 2003

19. Criteria for a Diagnosis of Bulimia • Recurrent episodes of binge eating. • Recurrent inappropriate behaviors to try to prevent weight gain (e.g., self-induced vomiting). • The binging and purging must occur at least twice a week for three months. ©Prentice Hall 2003

20. Criteria for a Diagnosis of Bulimia • Body shape and weight excessively influence one’s self-image. ©Prentice Hall 2003

21. Sex ©Prentice Hall 2003

22. Biological Factors • Although hormones are involved in human sexual responses, they don't play as dominant a role as they do in some other species. • In humans, the brain exerts a powerful influence on the sex drive as well. ©Prentice Hall 2003

23. Biological Factors • Hormones play an important role in the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. • Pheromones may influence sexual attraction in humans. ©Prentice Hall 2003

24. The Sexual Response Cycle • Excitement: • penile erection (males) and swelling of breasts and clitoris (females) • Plateau: • sexual tension levels off • Orgasm: • male ejaculation and female uterine contractions; A loss of muscle control for both sexes • Resolution: • relaxation and a decrease in muscle tension ©Prentice Hall 2003

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26. Cultural and Environmental Factors • Gender differences: • men are more aroused by visual stimuli, • women are more aroused by touch • Different cultures have varying beliefs on what is considered attractive. ©Prentice Hall 2003

27. Sexual Orientation • Arguments concerning the origins of sexual orientation parallel the nature vs. nurture debate. • The nature side argues there is a biological difference between homosexuality and heterosexuality. • The nurture side suggests sexual orientation is a learned behavior. ©Prentice Hall 2003

28. Other Important Motives ©Prentice Hall 2003

29. Stimulus Motives • Definition: • unlearned motives that prompt us to explore or change the world around us. • Exploration and curiosity • Manipulation and contact ©Prentice Hall 2003

30. Exploration and Curiosity • Exploration and curiosity are two human motivations that encourage us to explore our environment and often to change it. ©Prentice Hall 2003

31. Manipulation and Contact • Another important stimulus motive in humans and other primates is to seek various forms of tactile stimulation. • This contact motive can be seen in the child's urge to cling and cuddle. ©Prentice Hall 2003

32. Learned Motives • Aggression • Achievement • Power • Affiliation ©Prentice Hall 2003

33. Aggression • Aggression is behavior aimed at doing harm to others; also the motive to behave aggressively. • Aggression may be triggered by pain or frustration. • Aggression may be learned through modeling. © Prentice Hall, 1999

34. Aggression and Culture • Collectivist societies: • Emphasize the good of the group over the desires of the individual. • Individualist societies: • Emphasizes the good of the individual over the desires of the group. ©Prentice Hall 2003

35. Gender and Aggression • Males are more likely than females to behave aggressively, commit murder, favor capital punishment, use force to achieve their goals, and prefer aggressive sports. • Both biological and social factors contribute to gender differences in aggression. ©Prentice Hall 2003

36. Achievement • People who display a desire to excel, to overcome obstacles, and to accomplish difficult things score high in what psychologists call achievement motive. • Although hard work and a strong desire to master challenges contribute to achievement, competitiveness toward others often does not. ©Prentice Hall 2003

37. Achievement • In fact, competitiveness can actually interfere with achievement perhaps by alienating other people, or by becoming a preoccupation that distracts from the attainment of goals. ©Prentice Hall 2003

38. Affiliation • The need to be with others • Affiliation behavior stems from a subtle interplay of internal and external factors. • It is especially pronounced when we feel threatened or anxious. • Affiliation with others in this situation can counteract fear and bolster spirits. ©Prentice Hall 2003

39. Emotions ©Prentice Hall 2003

40. Basic Emotions • Robert Plutchik's classification system for emotions uses a circle to position eight basic emotional categories. ©Prentice Hall 2003

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42. Plutchik’s 8 Basic Categories of Emotion • Fear • Surprise • Sadness • Disgust • Anger • Anticipation • Joy • Acceptance ©Prentice Hall 2003

43. Theories of Emotion • James-Lange theory • Cannon-Bard theory • Cognitive theory ©Prentice Hall 2003

44. James-Lange Theory • According to the James-Lange theory, certain stimuli in the environment can bring on physiological changes in the body. • Emotions arise from our awareness of those changes. ©Prentice Hall 2003

45. Cannon-Bard Theory • The Cannon-Bard theory holds that emotions and bodily responses occur simultaneously, not one after the other. ©Prentice Hall 2003

46. Cognitive Theory • A third perspective, the cognitive theory of emotion, contends that our perceptions and judgments of situations are essential to our emotional experiences. • Without these cognitions we would have no idea how to label our feelings. ©Prentice Hall 2003

47. Challenges to the Cognitive Theory • Carroll Izard argues that it may not be cognitive assessments that give rise to emotions. • Perhaps certain inborn facial expressions and body postures are automatically triggered in emotion-arousing situations and then "read" by the brain as particular feelings. ©Prentice Hall 2003

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49. Communicating Emotions ©Prentice Hall 2003

50. Voice Quality and Facial Expression • People sometimes express their emotions verbally through their words, tone of voice, exclamations, and other sounds. • Facial expressions are the most obvious nonverbal indicators of emotion. ©Prentice Hall 2003