Symbolic consumption Tourists identity creation and the role of branding Branding and Market Development, March 201

1. Symbolic consumption – Tourists’ identity creation and the role of branding Branding and Market Development, March 2010By Karina M. Smed

2. Agenda: Theoretical perspectives on consumption and identity A case example from the field of tourism Relation to branding…

3. The self-conception approach to understanding consumer behaviour – underlying assumptions An individual does have a self-concept of himself The self-concept is of value to him Because this self-concept is of value to him, an individual's behaviour will be directed toward the furtherance and enhancement of his self-concept An individual's self-concept is formed through the interaction process with parents, peers, teachers, and significant others Goods serve as social symbols and, therefore, are communication devices for the individual The use of these good-symbols communicates meaning to the individual himself and to others, causing an impact on the intra-action and/or the interaction processes and, therefore, an effect on the individual's self-concept (Grubb & Grathwohl, 1967:25-26) The theory behind the conception of symbolic consumption rests on certain assumptions, which have been researched through various sources. One of the very early suggestions were the self-conception approach to consumer behaviour. As you can see it entails various underlying assumptions that play a role to how we perceive this particular issue of consumption. This approach implies that consumption of symbols is a means to self-enhancement. 1-3 an individual process 4 – self-concept shaped and enhanced by social recognition by significant reference groups 5-6 social process – social experience determining meaning of goodsThe theory behind the conception of symbolic consumption rests on certain assumptions, which have been researched through various sources. One of the very early suggestions were the self-conception approach to consumer behaviour. As you can see it entails various underlying assumptions that play a role to how we perceive this particular issue of consumption. This approach implies that consumption of symbols is a means to self-enhancement. 1-3 an individual process 4 – self-concept shaped and enhanced by social recognition by significant reference groups 5-6 social process – social experience determining meaning of goods

4. Implications…: Goods carry symbolic meaning Self affects motivations to buy Self and identity are individually and socially determined ”We are what we have” (Belk, 1988:139) Implications of these assumptions: 1. Symbolic meaning is entailed in goods that we buy, because we ascribe them meaning through our self-conception 2. Furtherance and enhancement of the self will lead to certain behaviour, i.e. it affects our motivation to buy 3. Linked to individual and social processes (although these are closely linked) A famous contention put forth ny Russell Belk states that we are what we have, indicating that what we consume becomes a part of who we are, due to the symbolic values entailed in consumer products – keep that in mind for nowImplications of these assumptions: 1. Symbolic meaning is entailed in goods that we buy, because we ascribe them meaning through our self-conception 2. Furtherance and enhancement of the self will lead to certain behaviour, i.e. it affects our motivation to buy 3. Linked to individual and social processes (although these are closely linked) A famous contention put forth ny Russell Belk states that we are what we have, indicating that what we consume becomes a part of who we are, due to the symbolic values entailed in consumer products – keep that in mind for now

5. Developments in Consumer Theory (By Østergaard & Jantzen, 2000) If we look into the development of consumer theory, focus has shifted every now and then: Strictly focusing on bying behaviour Focus on the process – before and after was included The context in which consumption takes place is included – leading to considerations of signals sent to surroundings (see quote on next slide) A social aspect of consumption is included A rough description of the development within research By no means are these mutually exclusive All can be found in contemporary research in some shape or formIf we look into the development of consumer theory, focus has shifted every now and then: Strictly focusing on bying behaviour Focus on the process – before and after was included The context in which consumption takes place is included – leading to considerations of signals sent to surroundings (see quote on next slide) A social aspect of consumption is included A rough description of the development within research By no means are these mutually exclusive All can be found in contemporary research in some shape or form

6. “[…] the consuming individual is conceived as a tourist who is looking for new experiences via consumption. This is not done due to a need for it or due to a need for fulfilling wants to get beyond a cognitive dissonance. Instead, it is based on a desire for a meaning in life (Østergaard, 1991) because the consuming individual, in this approach [consumer research], uses the consumption of products and services as bricks in the construction of a meaningful life. It is an ongoing project for the consuming individual to construct meaning, and it is based on emotions and feelings where the single consuming individual tries to create a coherent life” (Østergaard & Jantzen, 2000:17) About the break away from the two first approaches… An obvious link to tourism, but an important statement is made in saying that a desire for meaning in life is at the core of consumption (in this approach) Consumption offers a way of constructing meaning in life in a coherent mannerAbout the break away from the two first approaches… An obvious link to tourism, but an important statement is made in saying that a desire for meaning in life is at the core of consumption (in this approach) Consumption offers a way of constructing meaning in life in a coherent manner

7. Defining moments in time…: 16th Century means of government social competition trickle down effect Historical development of consumption – three defining moments in time where consumption changed dramatically in scale or character – gradually increasing significance of consumption in modern society Elizabethan England – the queen using excessive extravagant consumption to communicate power and status – encouraged noblemen etc to do the same, thereby reinforcing social competition – this was seen in other countries as well Taking place at the top of the social ladder, but eventually seaping through to the masses – trickle down effectHistorical development of consumption – three defining moments in time where consumption changed dramatically in scale or character – gradually increasing significance of consumption in modern society Elizabethan England – the queen using excessive extravagant consumption to communicate power and status – encouraged noblemen etc to do the same, thereby reinforcing social competition – this was seen in other countries as well Taking place at the top of the social ladder, but eventually seaping through to the masses – trickle down effect

8. 18th Century New opportunities & markets Changing consumer choices New opportunities for purchase arose + new markets emerged = widened consumer choices in general – leading to consumer society Consumption had taken on a different form, constructing new meanings, also found todayNew opportunities for purchase arose + new markets emerged = widened consumer choices in general – leading to consumer society Consumption had taken on a different form, constructing new meanings, also found today

9. “What men and women had once hoped to inherit from their parents, they now expected to buy for themselves. What were once bought at the dictate of need, were now bought at the dictate of fashion. What were once bought for life, might now be bought several times over. What were once available only on high days and holidays through the agency of markets, fairs and itinerant pedlars were increasingly made available every day but Sunday through the additional agency of an ever-advancing network of shops and shopkeepers. As a result ‘luxuries’ came to be seen as mere ‘decencies’, and ‘decencies’ came to be seen as ‘necessities’. Even ‘necessities’ underwent a dramatic metamorphosis in style, variety and availability” (McKendrick et al. (1982:I) in McCracken, 1988:17). Consumption has become a more influential and obvious factor of life Consumption has become a more influential and obvious factor of life

10. 19th Century A symbolic side of consumption Interactions between persons and ”things” “[consumer goods]…increasingly the residence of cultural meaning and new opportunities for defining self and the world" (McCracken, 1988:24) A nonreligious agent of change Beginning of consumer society New consumer liestyle emerges - Consumption has taken on a more symbolic side, because it has become a way of showing who you are New marketing techniques were employed and more and more social meaning was transferred onto products and implicitly onto the act and actor of consumption First time in history that social change was caused continuously by a nonreligious agent at a level that changed every feature of social life – consumer revolution – beginning of consumer society in which a central feature of culture and society is organised around consumption So, these are the defining moments leading up to the consumer society we still live in today New consumer liestyle emerges - Consumption has taken on a more symbolic side, because it has become a way of showing who you are New marketing techniques were employed and more and more social meaning was transferred onto products and implicitly onto the act and actor of consumption First time in history that social change was caused continuously by a nonreligious agent at a level that changed every feature of social life – consumer revolution – beginning of consumer society in which a central feature of culture and society is organised around consumption So, these are the defining moments leading up to the consumer society we still live in today

11. The consumer as a tribe member: ? ? Goods as a means to identity positioning and construction One way of looking at the meaning of consumption is to use Maffesoli’s (1996) contention that the consumer is a tribe member – any idea what that could indicate? This has to do with the fact that we all take part in social groups, e.g. family, friends, colleagues etc., and this has an impact on the way we perceive ourselves, i.e. according to our tribe Working with two different perspectives in this respect: Own perception of ourselves and how we are distinct from others Own perception of our group and how we obtain recognition from other group members by adhering to group norms = we are individuals in a group – although we’d like to think that we are all unique, and perhaps we are, but we are also social beings trying to conform This may be used to construct and position one’s identity through symbolic goods that does one or the other We are social beings that are situated in various social settings and affected by theseOne way of looking at the meaning of consumption is to use Maffesoli’s (1996) contention that the consumer is a tribe member – any idea what that could indicate? This has to do with the fact that we all take part in social groups, e.g. family, friends, colleagues etc., and this has an impact on the way we perceive ourselves, i.e. according to our tribe Working with two different perspectives in this respect: Own perception of ourselves and how we are distinct from others Own perception of our group and how we obtain recognition from other group members by adhering to group norms = we are individuals in a group – although we’d like to think that we are all unique, and perhaps we are, but we are also social beings trying to conform This may be used to construct and position one’s identity through symbolic goods that does one or the other We are social beings that are situated in various social settings and affected by these

12. Understanding Identity…: From identity as… A static core One entity formed at adolescence …but still a popular perception of having one unique inner core and true self To identity as… On-going process, constantly negotiated Multiple entitities dependent on context Postmodern self No unifying belief systems Fragmentation Decentering, “freedom” to choose and possible loss of coherent sense of self So, looking into the concept of identity, there has been a shift from identity perceived to be somewhat static, at least in the sense of people having a static inner core, and this is shaped at a very young age – still a popular perception A shift towards identity as an on-going process, we find ourselves in various contexts, wherefore we adapt to these Because the world is rapidly changing, there are no stable core that we can always navigate towardsSo, looking into the concept of identity, there has been a shift from identity perceived to be somewhat static, at least in the sense of people having a static inner core, and this is shaped at a very young age – still a popular perception A shift towards identity as an on-going process, we find ourselves in various contexts, wherefore we adapt to these Because the world is rapidly changing, there are no stable core that we can always navigate towards

13. Richard Jenkins (2008):  Static view: ”Something that simply is” What it really is: ”A process of being or becoming” = ’doing’ In addition: ”Never a final or settled matter” ? identity as a social construction In the past perceived as something static, but it really isn’t – a never-ending process = it becomes a social constructionIn the past perceived as something static, but it really isn’t – a never-ending process = it becomes a social construction

14. Conceptual Developments: Traditional psychology focus on individual self (E.g. Eriksson (1968) – life cycle) Social psychology focus on social dynamics (E.g. Tajfel & Turner (1979) + Jenkins (2008) - Social Identity Theory) Two directions that mark this shift – the second most commonly acknowledged todayTwo directions that mark this shift – the second most commonly acknowledged today

15. Personal & Social Identity: Multiple, flexible identities Group memberships Inclusion/exclusion Individual in group/group in individual - uniqueness/belonging – sameness, similarity/differentiation Dynamics pulling in different directions: Different identities being put to use in different social contexts Group memberships serve the function of both including and excluding individuals We are unique individuals, although we are part of various groups, and the group is part of us, as we try to conform to certain group/tribe memberships = we aim to be unique, identifiable selves, but at the same tie recognisition from others of who we are is keyDynamics pulling in different directions: Different identities being put to use in different social contexts Group memberships serve the function of both including and excluding individuals We are unique individuals, although we are part of various groups, and the group is part of us, as we try to conform to certain group/tribe memberships = we aim to be unique, identifiable selves, but at the same tie recognisition from others of who we are is key

16. Communicative negotiation of identity: Positioning self and other Ongoing process of negotiation "Identity can be seen as a story that a person writes and rewrites about him or herself, never reaching the end until they die, and always rewriting the earlier parts, so that the activity of writing becomes itself part of the story" (Giddens in Gabriel & Lang, 2006:83) Display of identity found in discourse, narratives, behaviour etc. How are these things evident? They are communicated all the time: We constantly work on positioning ourselves and others We negotiate these positions in the way we try to portray ourselves Evident through communicative behaviourHow are these things evident? They are communicated all the time: We constantly work on positioning ourselves and others We negotiate these positions in the way we try to portray ourselves Evident through communicative behaviour

17. In relation to tourism…: The inauthenticity of modern society – reality found elsewhere: ”…in other historical periods, and other cultures, in purer, simpler lifestyles” (MacCannell, 1976:3) Search for self elsewhere – tourism as an instrument ”tourists are away from home to experience the heigthened consciousness of self by searching for reference images and signs of others” (Wang, 2000:2) How is this expressed in a tourism context? As you’ve probably heard before, a basic premise for tourism can be stated to be the inauthenticity of modern society, which has a consequence of looking elsewhere for that type of reality In effect this means that we are searching for ourselves elsewhere through tourismHow is this expressed in a tourism context? As you’ve probably heard before, a basic premise for tourism can be stated to be the inauthenticity of modern society, which has a consequence of looking elsewhere for that type of reality In effect this means that we are searching for ourselves elsewhere through tourism

18. Tourist experience(s): a central element of tourism, and hence understanding ascribed meanings to tourism goes through the tourist experience a means to identity construction accessible through tourism narratives and discourse Tourism consumption is about consumption of tourist experiences, which are then ascribed symbolic meanings What we have – in Belk’s contention – are tourist experiences Tourism consumption is about consumption of tourist experiences, which are then ascribed symbolic meanings What we have – in Belk’s contention – are tourist experiences

19. Tourist Experience: Notion A) experience may be understood as an actual, specific activity that gives a certain, instant to some extent, experience at a particular moment in time (oplevelse, erlebnis) Notion B) experience may be understood as a mental state of accumulating knowledge through an inherent experiencing of different situations, events etc. such as the ones mentioned in notion A (erfaring, erfahrung)  Two notions that are both instrumental to identity constructionTwo notions that are both instrumental to identity construction

20. Tourist experience & Identity Different notions spin off each other – you cannot obtain internal experience, notion B, without notion A, so these are inseperable This builds a so-called travel career, i.e. the total of experiences that you have obtained and all that that entails, and from this identity is constructed – and re-constructed as new experiences are added and perspectives changeDifferent notions spin off each other – you cannot obtain internal experience, notion B, without notion A, so these are inseperable This builds a so-called travel career, i.e. the total of experiences that you have obtained and all that that entails, and from this identity is constructed – and re-constructed as new experiences are added and perspectives change

21. Best-Agers: Population getting older Growing spending power In relation to tourism… Increased awareness of possibilities to travel More holidays than others Spend more while on holiday Aim to learn more about themselves An empirical example: based on interviews that I made in 2007/2008 Best-agers – empty nesters, 50+ - in this particular case we’re talking about the age 50-65An empirical example: based on interviews that I made in 2007/2008 Best-agers – empty nesters, 50+ - in this particular case we’re talking about the age 50-65

22. Developments since 1950…: An elite activity spreading to the masses Shift from production to consumption Effects on work/leisure Economic basis for tourism Modes of transport: Socio-demographic changes affecting travel patterns “From a tourism perspective, one critical issue is how much the retiring baby boomers will continue to influence the development and marketing of tourism products, as well as tourism policy” Weaver & Lawton (2006:79) Historical development within tourism for the period of time that these best-agers have travelled 1. tourism used to be an activity mainly available to the elite, upper class society, but since the 1950s it has slowly but surely spread to the masses 2. A shift has taken place in society in general from being concerned with production to consumption, meaning that leisure has taken priority over work, because work is a means to consume during leisure time – work in order to play instead of play in order to work (taking time off to be refreshed and ready for work) 3. Woman has become a big part of the work force, meaning larger discretionary income to spend on tourism 4. It is now easier to get around, and people travel to all parts of the world 5. Life expectancy has increased, health concerns have generally diminished, and the population is generally getting older = a significant segment to consider in the futureHistorical development within tourism for the period of time that these best-agers have travelled 1. tourism used to be an activity mainly available to the elite, upper class society, but since the 1950s it has slowly but surely spread to the masses 2. A shift has taken place in society in general from being concerned with production to consumption, meaning that leisure has taken priority over work, because work is a means to consume during leisure time – work in order to play instead of play in order to work (taking time off to be refreshed and ready for work) 3. Woman has become a big part of the work force, meaning larger discretionary income to spend on tourism 4. It is now easier to get around, and people travel to all parts of the world 5. Life expectancy has increased, health concerns have generally diminished, and the population is generally getting older = a significant segment to consider in the future

23. Weaver & Lawton (2006:81) Increase in car and air traffic Decrease in bus and train (based on German travellers, but I would assume that it is the same in much of Europe)Increase in car and air traffic Decrease in bus and train (based on German travellers, but I would assume that it is the same in much of Europe)

24. “Classifications, logical operations, and guiding metaphors are given to the individual by society. Above all, the sense of a priori rightness of some ideas and the nonsensicality of others are handed out as part of the social environment. He [Durkheim] thought the reaction of outrage when entrenched judgments are challenged is a gut response directly due to commitment to a social group” (Douglas, 1986:10) Tourists as social beings, guided by cultural and social norms (thought style) within the groups to which we adhere History plays a role to such norms So, if we are to sum up at this point, there are a number of social factors that play a role here Mary Douglas speaks of though style as a sense of what is right and wrong in a certain culture (a national, local or group culture), in terms of tourism an example could be that a large group of people instinctly consider yelling and loudness culturally offensive to the host population History affects this thought style – what we believe to be positive or negative at a certain point in time This means that these best-agers are affected by the time that they grew up, and the previous travel experiences that they have, which were placed in a certain time. For example, something might have been cool at the time, but looking back with the cultral lenses of today it seems not to beSo, if we are to sum up at this point, there are a number of social factors that play a role here Mary Douglas speaks of though style as a sense of what is right and wrong in a certain culture (a national, local or group culture), in terms of tourism an example could be that a large group of people instinctly consider yelling and loudness culturally offensive to the host population History affects this thought style – what we believe to be positive or negative at a certain point in time This means that these best-agers are affected by the time that they grew up, and the previous travel experiences that they have, which were placed in a certain time. For example, something might have been cool at the time, but looking back with the cultral lenses of today it seems not to be

25. The travel career that I mentioned before thereby plays a role here, because you build up experience and you continuously evaluate them – in each after process, which then affects the next experience – you take past experiences with you, and evaluate new experiences from this Hereby you also construct identity based on all past experiences, because what you have is what you areThe travel career that I mentioned before thereby plays a role here, because you build up experience and you continuously evaluate them – in each after process, which then affects the next experience – you take past experiences with you, and evaluate new experiences from this Hereby you also construct identity based on all past experiences, because what you have is what you are

26. “Telling stories is a central part of conveying the meanings of travel. Like all stories, however, they have to be worked upon and built up if they are to communicate to others in a form that will confirm their identity" (Deforges, 2000:938). We then tell about our past experiences, which contributes to our identity construction, and when there is a new perspective to consider, we re-construct discursivelyWe then tell about our past experiences, which contributes to our identity construction, and when there is a new perspective to consider, we re-construct discursively

27. "Guided tours, where you are picked up and returned to the hotel are mostly for people that can't manage on their own, but of course we can manage by ourselves. We have only been on one package holiday together, and we didn't go on any of the tours. It was just the easiest way to get there and find a place to sleep, the rest we managed by ourselves. There has to be something new to discover every day, we mostly go for new experiences, where we do everything by ourselves." (Interview 1-DK, Hans) positioning of self and other (identity) capability, dependency, justification, curiosity expressions of motivations (identity ? motivation) novelty, discovery An example from an interview – so what’s going on here?An example from an interview – so what’s going on here?

28. Means to construct identity: The undesirable touristic identity as a measure Positions of self and other become evident through the use of the other (stupid, ignorant, intruding, inappropriate or simply too much) turistus vulgaris, which is undesirable although defined differently by different tourists. There is consensus of its existence though. Positioning oneself in the tourist landscape Using discursive positions (adventure, trivialisation, familiarity, nostalgia, novelty, freedom, independence, safety, comfort, quantity, quality, uniqueness, mass) to construct identity, usually in opposition to the other - undesirable. Justification Discursively, some sort of justification will be used to explain experiences that may in some way be considered inappropriate by the interviewees themselves, e.g. by ascribing lack of money great significance at a given point in time, explaining an otherwise perceived inappropriate choice. Also, all holidays at all given points in time are considered to be good. (Smed, 2009)

29. Supply-side perspective A model previously presented, how do you think this relates to what I’ve just presented you with? A model previously presented, how do you think this relates to what I’ve just presented you with?

30. Demand-side perspective There needs to be a match between brand and what is perceived to be desirable in terms of identity, i.e. can it support the identity that customers are trying to construct Mostly a communicative effortThere needs to be a match between brand and what is perceived to be desirable in terms of identity, i.e. can it support the identity that customers are trying to construct Mostly a communicative effort

31. Adventure: “Well, it’s just really boring isn’t it, other people’s holiday experiences, especially when they get the photographs out, unless they’ve done something really, well… different, then it’s a bit boring isn’t it. […] We don’t even bother taking a camera now, it’s just… you know, there’s just nothing to photograph that’s new or different” (Interview 1-UK, Judy p.18) “We tried to drive to Greece when the kids were quite small and we gave up in Italy, cause it was… you know, the kids were sticking to the vinyl seats and there were more flies in the car than there were outside… so we just stopped at a place called Vecchio in Italy, and actually had a fantastic three weeks really, all be it that the car broke down… we broke down near Pistoia at half past four, we were about to get a trade at half past four in the morning, it was a time when the guy… there were a lot of deaths really, because a lot of people had been murdered by… the Florence motorway murderer, you know, so we had a thrill of breaking down and every time a car stopped, we were thinking ahh… Anyway, and then we rode around on bikes for two weeks didn’t we, cause we didn’t have our car, we didn’t have any clothes, cause the car had been broken into when it was in the garage, and the kids… we had to buy the kids t-shirts with Firenze written all over them, but we had a great holiday, and we never stayed still.” (Interview 12-UK, Emily, p.28-29) Some more examples of communicating identity positions in tourist experiencesSome more examples of communicating identity positions in tourist experiences

32. Novelty: “It’s about the remoteness really [what she looks for in a destination]. The difference – the different culture, it’s completely different than in the West. So if I go to Germany, go to France, go to Austria, it’s different but the same. But this [Africa and Nepal] is a third world country with minimal resources, with people that are very miserly and you meet people that are quite different from ourselves, completely different, different values, different everything. I like that difference, I like to meet with that and look at how people manage their existence really. I spend time with them and you get that in the Nepal, in India and Africa and even when we went to Yugoslavia all those years ago or Poland, because in Poland you’ve got… it’s a quite upcoming economy. There are places in Poland that are quite rural that still have very old ways. (Interview 11-UK, Susan p.11)

33. Atmosphere: ”First of all, we look at this [a photo of Qaqortoq, Greenland] every day. There is a reason that we have let it stay there [as a screensaver]. This view is just so amazing! It was almost the very first thing I saw, when I first came to Julianehåb. We’ve been there both on holiday, and we’ve lived there, and we’ve experienced this view both in snow and at sunset. And then because it is an important part of our lives, the period of time that we were there. So, we were not just there as tourists, but we went back as tourists, because it had meant so much to us. And we are going to do that again in ten days.” (Interview 2-Dk, Susanne p.2)

34. Focus: “I: What about your list [one they made beforehand], have we gotten all the way around that? S: Norfolk, Wales, Devon, Morocco, Florida. We have friends who have a house in Florida. We went to see them three times, and I think that’s one of the things where we are going January for ten days, we go and play golf. If we’re not doing that, then there is not much to do in America. It’s only like a more expensive version of Britain. But I mean yes we have had some decent times over there. America is an easy place to get around, because they all speak the language. Portugal, Spain I hate, they are worse than the French. Spain is as bad as the French. Well, Spanish, French and the English are natural enemies. I: Yeah...? S: Spain is…the Armada, it’s a religion thing, cause they were catholic and we weren’t. We went there this year and it was awful. … Cornwall, Egypt, Maldives, Antigua, Paris, New England, Tuscany and that’s it” (Interview 5-UK, Simon p.21) “[…] It was a farm house, cottage, and there were about four cottages around in a courtyard and that was it. There was nothing else around, but you were about three miles down to the main drive up to Conwy and to Llandudno. So that was really lovely. We had that and we went to Lake Craftnent, Lin... as they say in Wales, Lin Craftnent, and everybody went for a walk and left me to it […]. And I just sat there and I thought ‘this is absolutely fantastic’. It was just so peaceful. It was a Sunday afternoon in March, end of March, and I actually wrote a poem, which I don’t do, occasionally but not much, but it really… it was inspirational” (Interview 13-UK, Liz p.8)

35. Fiction and Fact: (Lavery, 1999:2) Main stereotypes about mature consumers held by younger advertisers – communicate barriers (related to the American market) Supported by other researchers – often characterised by uniformity and conservatismMain stereotypes about mature consumers held by younger advertisers – communicate barriers (related to the American market) Supported by other researchers – often characterised by uniformity and conservatism