Summary of Readings 10/19

1. Summary of Readings 10/19 By: Sunhee Kang and Karl Magnuson Regarding Readings: 1) Richard-Amato & Snow. Ch. 2ByGersten, B. & Hudelson, S. Development in second language acquisition research and theory: From structuralism to social participation. 2) Brandl, K. (2008). Ch. 1 Principles of communicative language teaching and task-based instruction. In Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work.

2. Gersten and Hudelson’s Ch.2 in Richard-Amato, Snow (2005): Historical Developments--Overview of Second Language Learning/ESL: • Traditional method (Grammar/Trans.) 2,000+ years (!) [No/little speaking.] • “Transitional methods” (‘50s-’80s) • ‘90s-present: full realization of socio-cultural purposes of language leads to improved C.L.T. and Task-Based Instruction methods and techniques.

3. Effects of Skinner’s Research on Language Learning in mid-20thc. • Skinner, influenced by Behaviorism of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson, applied Stimulus-Response (S-R) to language learning • Result: Audio-lingual Methodology, and the Defense Language Institute’s “Army Method” of utilizing Pavlovian principles to “drill” FL-->habit formation as means to SLA.

4. Weaknesses of A.L.M.: • Behaviorism in FL instruction runs counter to accepted notions of S.L.A., that Second Language Acquisition is a gradual constructionof developing L2. • No room is left for refining hypotheses. • No room is left for errors; that is, there is no developmentalprocess in A.L.M. • A.L.M. is totally de-contextualized—(Language actually grows in real-world contexts!)

5. Chomsky’s Linguistic Theories add to the profession: • Chomsky opposes Behaviorism of Skinner and his S-R methods • Chomsky takes mentalist, or nativist view of syntax and humans’ innate capacity for language—children equipped from birth with L.A.D., or “black box” to acquire any language. • Positive Implication: Child as language constructor/active participant within each given language.

6. Following Chomsky… • R. Brown (1973) sees general, predictable sequence of early childhood language development. • Clark and Clark (1977) show children’s gradual development of phonological and semantic systems of English—language learning seen as refining process of developing language proficiency.

7. Interactional Nature of Talk • Other research since the ‘60s have highlighted the interactional nature of talk between adult and child. • The developmental psychologist Jean Piaget did studies that showed children as active learners and hypothesizers who act on environments and gradually construct their knowledge of their L2

8. Psycholinguists’ contributions: • Psycholinguists have said that L2 learning is a systematic, rule-governed gradual processof creative construction of the new language, requiring comprehensible input (i+1), making and trying out hypotheses, and making mistakes in the language • Psycholinguists also stress negotiation/interacting with others

9. Sociocultural-Sociolinguistic Approaches to L1 and L2 • Lev Vygotsky’s Z.P.D (Zone of Proximal Development--> зона ближайшего развития, 1933) --influenced how the teaching profession views social interaction in the classroom setting. • Berko-Gleason (‘89) showed that language use for social purposes more important than “grammar-only” methods.

10. Sociocultural, continued • Scholars (Cazden, ’72 et al.) showed that culturally diverse L2 learners needed multiple opportunities to use language • Structure of classroom is key—need to interact with more proficient adults and L1 and L2 peers in meaningful, challenging content

11. Literacy Learning • Goodman (‘60s) hypothesized that readers construct meaning from a text, use predicting strategies, use prior knowledge to comprehend the text. • ELLs can use writing in their still-developing new language to construct meaning (p.38, Richard-Amato, Snow).

12. Freire and Critical Literacy • “Reading the world” (p.41, ch. 2, text) means critiquing the world—purpose is to use literacy to better the world (Paulo Freire). • Use literacy to work for social justice (Paulo Freire). • Children are active constructors of their own literacy. • Literacy is social and cultural and political practice (Freire and Vygotsky would agree).

13. Brandl, 2008 article/chapter re: Principles of C.L.T. and T.B.I. • Task-Based Instruction has come into being after decades of trying other methods/techniques to teach world languages/L2s. • Previous/Present Methods mentioned: Grammar-Translation, A.L.M., Cognitive-Based Approaches, T.P.R., Direct Method, Natural Approach, Proficiency and Standards-Based Movements, etc., etc.

14. Shift from emphasizing learning to read/write, to learning to speak/understand spoken language in real-world contexts • Now, two-way spoken communication in a Second Language is the main focus. • More and more, syllabi are being written around speech functions (pragmatics) of communication. • Speech Acts: requesting, arguing, describing, requesting, etc. are seen as key.

15. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) • Hymes (1971) and other researchers begin the accept the new theory/paradigm that “…the primary function of language use is communication…and its goal is for learners to develop communicative competence.” (p. 5, Brandl, K., 2008)

16. Re-defining Language Learning • Communicative competence is now defined as “the ability to interpret and enact appropriate social behaviors, and it requires the active involvement of the learner in the production of the target language” (Canale and Swain, 1980).

17. CLT and its offshoots • CLT has brought about various movements: Proficiency-Based, or Standards-Based, Instruction. • Proficiency-Based Instruction focuses on measuring what learners can do in functional termsthis has provided teachers with a set of broadly-stated goals, and a sense of direction for curriculum designers (Brandl, p.6).

18. Methodology of CLT/Task-Based Instruction • Use Tasks (of a practical, real-world nature) • Promote Learning by Doing (“hands-on” approach to learning) • Input must be “rich” (as many real-world/authentic contexts presented as possible) • InputMeaningful, Comprehensible, Elaborated, with simplified language, repetition, enhanced enunciation, slower speech rate.

19. Methods of CLT/Tasks, cont’d. • Promote Cooperative and Collaborative Learning (Vygotsky’s ZPD). • “Focus on Form” (vs. “Focus on formS”)—need to be mindful of explicit, form-meaning connection, within communicative tasks • Provide Error Corrective Feedback

20. Methods of CLT/Tasks, cont’d. • Be mindful of Affective Factors (Stress and Anxiety Factors) of Learning • Overall, CLT is eclectic in its approach.

21. Conclusions from readings: • Big Picture: The profession of language teaching has moved from the 2,000+ year-old method of L2 teaching (i.e., from Grammar-Translation Method), to Task-Based/Communicative Language Teaching that VALUES/centers around the individual student and does not only privilege the subject-matter and its pre-packaged truthmeaning(s) are now democratically negotiated in dialogue/discourse.