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Scramble for Africa and European Colonial Rule

Scramble for Africa and European Colonial Rule. Partitioned Africa. Congress of Berlin. Modern African History – Congress of Berlin, 1884-1885 Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Italy Great Political Event – Dividing Line? Emphasis on Moment of Political Change

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Scramble for Africa and European Colonial Rule

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  1. Scramble for Africaand European Colonial Rule

  2. Partitioned Africa

  3. Congress of Berlin • Modern African History – Congress of Berlin, 1884-1885 • Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Italy • Great Political Event – Dividing Line? • Emphasis on Moment of Political Change • Early/Modern Africa – Pre-colonial/Colonial

  4. Rethinking Africa:Economic Development • 1970s – Marxists – Economic Lens • Economic Factors • 1884 Inaccurate Dividing Point, Irrelevant • Precapitalist/Capitalist • Industrial Revolution – 18th c. Britain • Industrialization’s impact on Africa • Congress of Berlin – Formal Colonialism • Earlier Date for Economic Change - 1807

  5. African/European Trading Relations c. 1800 • 1800 – 90% of export value – slaves • 1807 – Britain abolished slave trade – France and Holland followed • “Legitimate Trade” – change in economic relationship between Africa/Europe • 1807 – Slave trade did not end • Coexistence of trades after abolition

  6. Portuguese: Key Actors • Portuguese government resisted Britain’s end of trade • North versus South of the Equator • Increase in volume: Mozambique/Angola • Brazil’s independence (1822) • Rejection of Portuguese treaties • “Brazilians” • Bight of Benin – 80,000 slaves per annum

  7. 19th Century:Demand for New World Slaves • New World plantation system growing • US South – cotton • Brazil – sugar and coffee • Caribbean (Cuba) – sugar • Abolition – US (1863), Cuba (1886), Brazil (1888) – Vested interests • Africa – Vested interests – Rulers and elites, dependent on luxury goods/arms

  8. Britain:End of the Slave Trade • Four Factors in Preventing End of Trade • Geography • Slaving regions’ proximity to equator • Transportation/Communication • Differences in naval technologies • Inefficient communication systems • West African Coastline • Portuguese Government and “Brazilians”

  9. Abolition of Slave Trade:Statistics • 1850s • Slave trade as profitable as ever, even 45 years after abolition • British efforts at thwarting trade • Freed 1:16 slaves • First half 19th c. – 160,000 freed • Britain and Gun-Boat Diplomacy • Brazil capitulated – 1857 • 1860s – Trade in decline, largely over in West Africa • 1870s – Trade largely over in East Africa

  10. Why the dividing line:1807? • 1807 – Division of Precapitalist/Capitalist? • “Legitimate Trade” • Parallel Process • Enormous cultural and economic changes • Industrial Revolution – • European demand for raw materials - oil • Machinery, Candles, Soap • Peanut Oil – Upper Guinea Coast (Senegal) • Palm Oil – Lower Guinea Coast (Nigeria) • Global Trade Networks • Spices – Zanzibar • Agricultural products (Mombasa, Malindi)

  11. “Legitimate Trade:”Social Change in Africa • Emergence of New Classes – West Africa • Rural Peasantry and Middle Class • Emergence of Peasantry • Peanut/Palm oils – anyone enter market – ordinary people, real opportunities in large-scale trade • Emergence of Middle Class • Commercialization of Labor – locally and Africans who could not produce for themselves • Migrant laborers and environment • Labor and kinship networks • Emergence of New Classes – East Africa • Small-scale shambas – production for markets • Middle Men – Asian population

  12. “Legitimate Trade:”Change in African Imports • Emergence of Classes – Change in Import Demands • No longer luxury goods alone • Textiles, hard wares, salt, tobacco • New mass market for new market of consumers • Emergence of a class-based society, and consumer society • Africans (1810-60) – Terms of Trade

  13. Scramble for Africa • Scramble for Africa • Not a single moment in time, rather a process • Congress of Berlin, 1884-1885 • Marks a political moment when formal colonization begins

  14. Scramble for Africa:Partition • 1860s – British government – committee on viability/benefits of colonies around world • Conclusion: Too costly, not worth expenditure – abandon colonies, outdated • British dominance in production – imperialism of free trade • Time of free trade/laissez faire policies

  15. Scramble for Africa:Partition • 1898 – 30 years later – Africa partitioned by European powers • President of France: “We have behaved like madmen...led astray by people called colonialists.” • What had changed in attitude of European powers – particularly the British – towards colonialism?

  16. What’s the Insanity? • Insanity – Scramble for Africa • Second largest continent – divided by European powers in span of some twenty years, 1875-1895 • What changed Europe’s attitudes towards colonies, and Africa in particular? • Europeans at the time: Scramble astonishing event • Many – mass insanity – everyone crazy at the same time? Rational actors…

  17. What’s the Insanity? • Historiographical Debate – what is this? • Different interpretations of an historical moment or process • Informed by broader trends in the field • Informed by one’s own assumptions and biases • Historians speak to each other and are constantly revising each others works

  18. “New Imperialism” • All five interpretations try to explain and understand phenomenon of “New Imperialism” • End of 19th c – Europeans reversed attitude towards formal colonies in the tropic • Divided Africa, Pacific Basin, and SE Asia • Interpretations: Interplay between objective and subjective – positionality of author

  19. Historical Interpretations:Five to Consider • Five Historical Interpretations: • Joseph Schumpeter – irrationality • William Langer and AJP Taylor – WWI and diplomatic approach • Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher – Africa and the Victorians • Marxist Interpretation • J.A. Hobson, R. Hilferding, Vladmir Lenin • Eric Hobsbawm – search for markets and profitability

  20. E.J. Hobsbawm • Neo-Marxist, British Historian • The Age of Empire, 1875-1914 (1988) • Also writes the Age of Revolution, Age of Capital, and Age of Extremes • British key players in Scramble • Also global economic concerns and changes

  21. E.J. Hobsbawm • Argues: • Britain first country go through Industrial Revolution, 1780-1815 • Accepts Hobson’s idea of “underconsumptionism” • Impoverishment of British working class • Britain moves into world-trade vacuum, no competition for international markets • Free trade, or laissez-fair ideology, ruled, no reason for colonies, 1860 • Britain didn’t need formal colonies

  22. E.J. Hobsbawm • Ideal situation over, 1870 – 3 Reasons: • First, competition in the industrial world • Other countries – US/Germany – emulate Britain • Industrial espionage, pirating of British ideas • Competing states, tariff barriers, Britain excluded, trade walls going up all over world • Second, Second Industrial Revolution • First Industrial Revolution – Textiles, British dominate • Second Industrial Revolution – chemicals/metals – US and Germany • Britain’s economic position eroded, 1870

  23. E.J. Hobsbawm • Third – Things begin to go wrong for the British in Africa itself by 1870s • British position as partners with those on the periphery changes vis-à-vis partner status • 1810-60, Terms of trade favored Africans • Changes, cost of manufactured goods up, raw material prices hit rock bottom in 1890s • Africans accuse British of dishonesty • Fluctuations in international prices

  24. E.J. Hobsbawm • Result: • Traders demand more to keep markets open, gov’t protect their interests • Keep Africans in check, protection • Establish formal colonies • Protected markets – alternative to US and German markets – needed this to survive • Other countries, pre-emptive strikes when Britain begins to establish formal footholds • Not Hilferding’s cartels, but small merchants setting off Scramble

  25. “White Man’s Burden” • Formal Empire – African’s ability to govern • Colonial Justifications • Africans inability to govern • Humanitarian effort • Rudyard Kipling • European or “White Man’s” duty to bring peace and administration or civilization where there had been none • Europeans the “humanitarian peacemakers” • Only with intervention could Africans prosper

  26. Introduction:African Independence • 1950s/1960s – Claims of “White Man’s Burden” rejected as imperial rationale • Propaganda to cloak greed/evils of colonial system, and justify European presence • Last decade – re-evaluation of complete dismissal of “White Man’s Burden” • Scholars – Some truth to it • 19th c – In some places, like W. Africa, as well as East, Central, and Southern, instability • Some regions Africans welcomed Europeans

  27. Missionaries and Africa • Rise in Missionary Activity in Africa • Lack of missionary interest, 18th century • Nonconformist churches, 19th century • East and Central Africa - Zanzibar • David Livingstone – Scottish missionary, 1840s • Published accounts, exploration and Royal Geographic Society • Richard Burton and John Speke – 1857, Nile • Henry Morton Stanley – “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” (1871, Lake Tanganyika) • Evils of slavery – dies 1873, 11 month trek, Westminster Abbey, April 1974 • “Commerce, Christianity, and Civilization”

  28. Markets and Christianity • Scramble for Africa – about search for markets and profits • Time of European depression of 1870s • Markets collapsing domestically • Excessive supplies, desperate for market • Europe and Africa • Not for exploration, widen geographic knowledge • Not primarily humanitarian, don’t overlook importance of increasing violence/slave trade

  29. Markets and Christianity • Economy and Ideas: Christianity • Conflict in interior, demands of Christian missionaries, fell on receptive ears • Explicit link between Christianity and trade • David Livingstone, Africa’s most famous missionary • “Commerce, Christianity, Civilization,” 3Cs • Livingstone: emphasized Christianity’s dynamic force, role it would play in opening up Africa to western trade/commerce

  30. Markets and Christianity • Most people – particularly Europe’s decision-makers • Motivated by underlying economic reasons • Ideas like Christianity v. important in reinforcing moves into the interior • Particularly true, conversions linked to creating peace and environments conducive to trade • Every colony/region have own trajectories • Changes take place in later 19th c., examined in broader changes of larger world processes

  31. Scramble for Africa • 1890 – Africa under European control, what did colonialists discover? • Myths not precisely accurate • Effective Occupation – Very expensive proposition • Costs of Empire – European taxpayers • Fiscal Problem – Make new colonies pay – exports and tax revenue

  32. Classification of Empires:Colonial Administration • Classify Empires by country administering them • French system – “assimilation” • British system – “separate development” • OR – “direct” versus “indirect” rule • Administration approach – misleading • Nature of the political economy • Various types both between and within colonies

  33. Historical Change • Historical change is often uneven • Typical and important for study of Africa • Unevenness not due to different administrative systems • Rather, due to emergence of different economic systems, which the administration reflects • Results – very different patterns of life for African people

  34. Paths to Economic Development • Four ways to generate tax revenue: • Grant Concessions – Leopold II in Congo Free State • Use Migrant Laborers or Labor Reserve Areas – work in distant places of employment – Southern Africa and the mines • Push local Africans into Peasant Productionfor markets – Uganda and Senegal • Bring European Settlers to create “real” colonial situation – Kenya and Southern Rhodesia

  35. East Africa and Zanzibar • Zanzibar on the eve of colonial rule • Seyyid Said (1856) and Succession • Divided Empire – SeyyidThuwain (Oman), SeyyidMajid (Zanzibar) • SeyyidMajid – British naval protection (1861) • Political vulnerability and lack of military force • Threats from Thuwain, N. Arabs, and SeyyidBargash • British navy and instability…slave trade

  36. East Africa and Zanzibar • Zanzibar on the eve of colonial rule • Sultan Barghash (1870-88) • Fragility of empire • Cholera epidemic – 10,000 in Stone Town • Hurricane of 1872 – 85% of clove plantations • British abolition of slavery • Abolition of slave trade and slavery • 1873 – abolition of trade by sea • 1876 – abolition of trade by land • 1897 – abolition in Unguja and Pemba • 1907 – abolition in Kenya Coast

  37. East Africa and Zanzibar • Zanzibar and colonial rule in E. African context • Germany – mainland of Tanganyika (until WWI) • British Protectorate (1890) – Zanzibar and 6 mile coastal strip • British/German trade for islands in the Baltic Sea • British colonial rule in Zanzibar • Economically viable – agricultural production and taxation • Politically – Busaidi Sultanate (like Kabaka, Uganda) • Bombardment of Stone Town (August, 1896), succession crisis • Destruction of Beit al-Sahel and Beit al-Hukm • “House of Wonders” untouched

  38. East Africa and Zanzibar • British colonial rule • “Divide and Rule” • Colonial Institutions – categories of race and ethnicity codified • Executive Council – Arab and Asian representation • Legal codes and African customary law • Historic fluidity now reified

  39. East Africa and Zanzibar • British colonial rule • Economy and free market principles • Arab Indebtedness to Asian lenders. Threat of insolvency and fear of agricultural collapse • British agricultural subsidies failed. • Marketing Board – Clove Growers Association (CGA) in 1928 – controlled prices and export (1937) • Protection of Arab landlords at expense of Asians. Forbid Asian land ownership of plantations • Boycotts in India on demand side • 1938 – “Heads of Agreement” – guaranteeing export to Asians, but prices remained fixed • NOT a free market – interference of state in economy, put another way, economy embedded in institutions

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