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Chapter 2

Chapter 2. A Child ’ s World: How We Discover It. Theory. Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to: Organize Explain Guide/Inspire Predict Hypotheses. Basic Theoretical Issues. Nature vs. nurture Active vs. reactive Organismic vs. mechanistic

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Chapter 2

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  1. Chapter 2 A Child’s World: How We Discover It

  2. Theory • Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to: • Organize • Explain • Guide/Inspire • Predict • Hypotheses

  3. Basic Theoretical Issues • Nature vs. nurture • Active vs. reactive • Organismic vs. mechanistic • Continuity vs. discontinuity • Quantitative vs. Qualitative • Early vs. later experience • Stability vs. change

  4. THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT • Psychoanalytic theories: • Freud and Erikson • Behavior is a surface characteristic • Need to understand the symbolic workings of the mind • Early experiences with parents are emphasized ?

  5. Freud’s Theory Psychosexual Development • Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) • Parts of personality • Id • Ego • Superego ??

  6. Psychosexual Stages Fixation: Too much or too little gratification

  7. Erikson’s TheoryPsychosocial Development • Erik Erikson (1902–1994) • Modified and expanded Freud’s theory • Psychosocial crises • Identity • Differences from psychosexual development • Social interactions • Conscious • Active actions • Eight stages ?

  8. Learning Theories • Behaviorism - John B. Watson • Classical conditioning - Ivan Pavlov • Operant conditioning - B. F. Skinner • Observable Behavior; individual passively learn behaviors • Social Learning Theory • Observational learning – Albert Bandura • Active participants in learning

  9. Behavioral Theories • Pavlov’s classical conditioning • A neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response originally produced by another stimulus • Skinner’s operant conditioning • The consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence • A behavior followed by Reinforcement or Punishment

  10. Social Learning Theory • Albert Bandura • Added Social and Cognitive influences to behaviorism • Observational Learning • Reciprocal Determinism (B  E  P) • Self-Efficacy • Child is an active learner

  11. The Cognitive Perspective Focuses on children’s mental processes and the behavior that reflects those processes • Jean Piaget’sCognitive-Developmental Theory • Information-Processing Theory • Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory ??

  12. Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory • Worked with Binet on IQ tests for children • Children are “natural physicists” • Developmental • Think different at different ages

  13. PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

  14. Piaget’s Basic Concepts • Organization • Schemes • Adaptation • Assimilation • Accommodation • Equilibration

  15. Information-Processing Theory Influenced by the concepts of computer science • Input, Storage, Processing, Output • Encoding • Memory • Retrieval • Software and Hardware • Mental processes • Brain

  16. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory • Sociocultural Theory • Culture and social interact to guide cognitive development • Thoughts are “created” by the culture we live in and the tools we use • Cognitions are created and live in our social world

  17. The Contextual Perspective UrieBronfenbrenner’ s Ecological Theory • Reciprocal interactions between individual and their environment. • Not a Developmental Theory! • Focuses on systems children participate in

  18. Figure 2.2 - Bronfenbrenner’sBioecological Theory

  19. Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective E. O. Wilson and Darwin • Ethology: Adaptive behaviorsand critical/sensitive periods. Study animals and apply to humans. • Evolutionary Theory: Survival of the fittest and development of adaptive behaviors in a particular society/culture.

  20. Research Methods • Quantitative research: Deals with objectively measurable data. • Based on scientific method: System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry. • Identifies a problem to be studied. • Formulates a hypothesis to be tested by research. • Collects data. • Analyzes the data.

  21. Research Methods • Forms tentative conclusions. • Disseminates findings. • Qualitative research: Interpretation of nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs. • Focuses on the how and why of behavior • Informs both how they collect data as well as its interpretation

  22. Table 2.3 - Comparing Qualitative and Quantitative Research

  23. Sampling • Sample: Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study. • Should adequately represent the population under study Type used by quantitative researchers Type used by qualitative researchers • Random selection • Selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen. • Focusedselection • Participants are chosen for their ability to communicate the nature of a certain experience.

  24. Table 2.4 - Major Methods of Data Collection

  25. Basic Research Designs • Case study: Study of a single subject, such as an individual or family. • Offers useful in-depth information. • Ethnographic study: In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation. • Uses a combination of methods, including informal, unstructured interviewing and participant observation.

  26. Basic Research Designs • Participant observation: Observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed. • Correlational study: Intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists. • Variables - Phenomena that change or vary among people or can be varied for purposes of research. • Correlations are expressed in terms of direction and magnitude.

  27. Basic Research Designs • Two variables are related positively if they: • Increase or decrease together • Two variables have a negative, or inverse, correlation if: • One increases and the other decreases • Correlations are reported as numbers ranging from +1.0 to –1.0.

  28. Figure 2.3 - Scatter Plots of Positive, Negative, and No Correlations

  29. Basic Research Designs • Experiment: Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. • Experimental group: Group receiving the treatment under study. • Control group: Group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study.

  30. Basic Research Designs • If the experimenter wants to compare the effects of different treatments, overall sample may be divided into treatment groups. • To ensure objectivity, some experiments use double-blind procedures. • Neither participants nor experimenters know who is receiving the treatment and who is instead receiving an inert placebo.

  31. Basic Research Designs • Independent variable: Condition over which the experimenter has direct control. • Dependent variable: Condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable. • Random assignment: Assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group.

  32. Basic Research Designs • Laboratory experiments - Participants are brought to a laboratory, where they experience conditions manipulated by the experimenter. • Field experiment - Controlled study conducted in an everyday setting.

  33. Basic Research Designs • Laboratory and field experiments differ in two important respects: • Degree of control - Exerted by the experimenter • Degree to which findings can be generalized beyond the study situation • Natural experiment - Compares people who have been accidentally assigned to separate groups by circumstances of life.

  34. Advantages and Disadvantages of Basic Research Designs

  35. Table 2.6 - Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Sequential Research

  36. Collaborative Research • Meta-analysis - Provides a systematic overview of the research on a topic . • Through statistical analysis of the combined findings of multiple studies • Used for controversial findings • Are an attempt to reconcile disparities across a large number of studies • Designs and methodologies of the studies may be inconsistent

  37. Ethics of Research • Guidelines of the American Psychological Association cover issues like: • Informed consent and avoidance of deception • Protection of participants from harm and loss of dignity • Right to decline or withdraw from an experiment at any time • Responsibility of investigators to correct any undesirable effects

  38. Ethics of Research Three Principles of Ethical Dilemmas Ethical Considerations That Can Present Problems • Beneficence - Obligation to maximize potential benefits to participants and to minimize potential harm • Respect for autonomy - Of those who are unable to exercise their own judgment • Justice - Inclusion of diverse groups together with sensitivity to any special impact the research may have on them • Right to informed consent • Avoidance of deception • Right to self-esteem • Right to privacy and confidentiality

  39. Table 2.7 – Developmental Considerations in Children’s Participation in Research

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