Advanced Literacy Skills

1. Advanced Literacy Skills Lacon Childe School

2. Self Review to Start This booklet will be useful for reference in preparation for English exams. In terms of writing effectively these are the core skills you need to be able to demonstrate in writing: • Create imaginative, interesting and increasingly sophisticated texts for a range of purposes (for English Language you will be assessed on writing to describe/ narrate and viewpoint/ persuasive writing, for English Literature you need to be able to structure an analytical essay effectively in a short space of time); • Structure and organise you writing using paragraphs successfully for fluency and cohesion; • Vary sentences for effect and impact on the reader; • Write with technical accuracy and use a range of punctuation; • Use apt and sophisticated vocabulary; • Use correct spelling of most words. No doubt some areas you will find easier than others. Spend a few minutes reflecting on your strengths and weaknesses in writing. There may be particular types of writing you feel more confident with perhaps, like creative writing. Handwriting may also be an area which you are conscious of and this may slow you down and make you more reluctant to write. My Writing Strengths: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ My Writing Weaknesses: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. In terms of reading, this booklet also offers some support for the A0s 1 and 2 in particular, and gives you some reminders regarding key reading skills. This booklet will be of use in other lessons where writing and reading are important, particularly the Humanities subjects.

3. Section 1. Review of Grammatical Terminology. Verbs... Verb Tenses: We also need to make sure we use the correct tense and stay in that tense in our writing. Past: we were racing them Present: We are racing them Future: We will be racing them. Most verbs follow this pattern Action Words! You should know a verb is the action word in a sentence. I play football every day. Play is the verb. . Auxiliary Verbs Some verbs aren’t just single words. They need a helping verb (auxiliary verb) as well. e.g. We are sailing. It was raining. We could sink. Underline the auxiliary verbs in the sentences below: 1. The spaceship had arrived late. 2. My mum is driving to Edinburgh 3. I am staying right here. Think of some sentences which including 3 of the following auxiliary verbs; has/ have, do/ did, will, would. Words like: would, could, should, might are known as ‘modal verbs.’ (check you write ‘could have, would have etc – not could ‘of’). Common Irregular Verbs Some other terms linked to verbs: The infinitive form of averbis the verb in its basic form. The version of the verb which will appear in the dictionary.The infinitive form of a verb is usually preceded byto(e.g.,to run,to dance, to think). Present participle: the form of a verb, ending in-ing which is used in forming continuous tenses, e.g. in I'm thinking, Active and Passive verbs: Active describes a sentence where the subject performs the action stated by the verb.  In passivesentences, the subject is acted upon by the verb. Sue changed the flat tire. (active)The flat tire was changed by Sue. (passive) We are going to watch a movie tonight. (active)A movie is going to be watched by us tonight. (passive) Check:: You can identify and comment on verbs in descriptive texts; You use the correct form and interesting choices in your own writing .

4. Noun Phrases A noun phrase is a combination of adjectives and a noun, normally preceded by ‘a, the or some.’ Adjectives modify the noun phrase. Consider the effect of the following: Nounsare: Words which name people, animals, places and things. Common Nouns are generic • Circle the words which are common nouns below: chair walked rice jumped basket television flower boat am behaving plastic horse The words you have circled are common nouns. Proper Nouns Name a particular place, time, or person. E.g. Cairo, Sunday, Jeremy. They always start with a CAPITAL letter. Pronouns Take the place of proper nouns you, we, our, etc ( consider the effect of possessive pronouns) • Consider how proper nouns and pronouns are used in texts you read and the effect on the reader. See if you can identify noun phrases and comment on effects in fiction texts. How do they create mood and atmosphere? Collective Nouns: This is the name we give to a group of nouns to refer to them as one entity. Most of them come from the poetry and imagination of early to late Medieval English times e.g. - an eloquence of lawyers. They can group people (a gang of thieves), animals (a swarm of bees) and things (a wad of notes). Abstract Nouns Some nouns identify things which you can’t actually see, hear, smell touch or taste. They are abstract qualities such as happiness or excitement. Task: Identify the abstract nouns in this story: As the plane reached 4,000 metres Anton was filled with dread. The door creaked open and fear turned his limbs to jelly. ‘This is no time for cowardice,’ Anton told himself and leapt out. As he hurtled towards the airfield, he was surprised to find he was having fun. He tugged the parachute chord and suddenly there was peace and quiet. Now identify any other nouns you can see. Put a P for proper and a C for common. What about the verbs? What is the effect of these?

5. Adjectives These describe the noun. They might be linked to colour, shape, size, texture etc. • Underline the adjectives in the following sentences: 1. The black cat reclined comfortably on the silk cushion. 2. The great oak tree towered above the small boy, who picked up the golden acorns lying at it’s knarled roots. Superlative and Comparative Adjectives • Comparative adjectives compare two nouns. E.g. The Volvo is a better car than the Fiat. • Superlative adjectives say something is the BEST. The Aston Martin was the best car because it provided the smoothest ride, had the greatest acceleration and looked the most sophisticated of all. • These are often used in persuasive writing for hyperbolic effect. Adjectival Phrases – a group of words that describe a noun. Sometimes it can be more effective to use a group of words to do the job of an adjective. A group of words used in this way is known as an adjectival phrase. ‘The sunlit garden’ could become ‘the garden was bathed in sunlight’ ‘the starry night’ could become ‘the night sky was filled with stars.’ Make the following into adjectival phrases: He was a tall man It was a cloudless night He was in a side street. Adverbials and adverbial phrases Adverbs give us a sense of time, place or manner. Like adjectival phrases, an adverbial phrase is when two or more words do the job of an adverb. The baby slept soundly (adverb of manner) The baby slept in peace (adverbial phrase of manner) Make the following into adverbial phases: The stars shone brightly. The boy acted foolishly. In Wales it rains constantly. When the adverbial contains another noun it becomes an adverbial clause e.g. ‘the baby cried like a lamb bleating.’

6. Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases These tell you about the relationship between one thing and another, the ‘position.’ e.g. You went around the block. He jumped over the cat. In the drawer is a knife. Underline the preposition in these sentences: 1. Nick sat on the table. 2. Susan ran beside Alfie. 3. The bird flew above their heads. Now change the word order around so each sentence starts with the preposition. Sometimes it is a good idea to start sentences with a preposition to add variety. Think of 3 more prepositions. Prepositional phrases often help you answer the questions of where, when, how, what, which and whose in a text. Consider these lines from Wordsworth’s poem ‘Daffodils’ and the effect of the prepositional phrases: ‘That floats on high o’er vales and hills’ ‘Beside the lake, beneath the trees.’ Connectives: Consider how connectives are used for structure and development in texts. You may focus on connectives when you write about STRUCTURE. You need to use a range of appropriate connectives in your own writing.

7. Spelling Matters …You must be able to: Spell basic and regular words Spell complex and irregular words Root words These are words that have nothing added at the beginning or end. They can be built upon or modified. New words can be built by adding beginnings (prefixes) and endings (suffixes). For example ‘use’ is a root word. This can be added to, to make the words useless, usually, usable, misuse. Task: Add 3 variations for each of the following root words; clear, manage, beauty, faith. Suffixes A suffix is the group of letters you can add to the end of a root word. E.g. walking, helpful. Probably the most common suffixes are ‘ed’ and ‘ing.’ Adding suffixes can change the spelling of the root word depending on how it ends. E.g. Marry becomes married, they changes to an i when we add the suffix. Add suffixes to these other words ending in y – happy, carry. The suffixes of these words are spelt differently but sound the same. Station mansion musician Think of other words which have these suffixes: Attention Tension Television Fraction Optician Extension Indonesian Action Prefixes: These are added to the beginning of words. Prefixes have meanings. Match these prefixes with their meanings: Mis under Sub wrong Pre not Un before Challenge: Think about the prefixes in words from other subject areas. Making connections between words will help you with understanding and spelling. Remember: root words don’t change when you add a prefix so sometimes this results in a double letter e.g. misspell, granddad.

8. Some Prefixes and their meanings anti- against antifreeze de- opposite defrost dis-* not, opposite of disagree en-, em- cause to encode embrace fore- before forecast in-, im-, il-, ir-* not injustice impossible inter- between interact mid- middle midway mis- wrongly misfire non- not nonsense over- over overlook pre- before prefix re-* again return semi- half semicircle s ub- under submarine super- above superstar t rans- across transport un-* not unfriendly under- under undersea *Most frequent. The four most frequent prefixes account for 97 percent of prefixed words in printed school English. Some Suffixes and their meanings -able, -ible can be done comfortable –al, -ial having characteristics of personal -ed* past-tense verbs hopped -en made of wooden -er comparative higher -er, one who worker, actor -est superlative biggest -ful full of careful -ic having characteristics of linguistic -ing* verb form running present -ion, -tion,-ation, act, process elimination -ity -ty state of infinity -ive, -ative, -itive adjective form of noun plaintive less without fearless -ly* having of full of quickly -ment action or process enjoyment -ness state of, condition of kindness -ous, -eous, -ious possessing qualities of joyous -s, -es* more than one books, boxes -y characterised by lucky *Most frequent. The four most frequent suffixes account for 97 percent of suffixed words in printed school English.

9. Doubling Rules- a bit tricky to remember! For most short one or two syllable words you double the last consonant when you add a suffix e.g. Run =running, begin= beginning If the word ends with more than one consonant you don’t double the last letter e.g. pumped, singing. For most longer words ending in l you double the l e.g. Travelling, cancelled. If you have a word ending in a consonant and a suffix starting with a consonant you don’t need to double the last letter e.g. enrolment, commitment. Test yourself on other words and check whether you are doubling when you need to. Note:it is acceptable to spell the words focusing and targeting with a single or double e.g. focussing, targetting. Plurals • The most common way to show a plural is to add an s but it isn’t always that simple ... If a word ends in a hissing sound (s, sh, ch or x) add es.e.g. Glasses, foxes, wishes, witches If a word ends in f or fe you usually change these letters to ves e.g. Loaf = loaves, wife = wives But watch out for the exceptions: roofs, chiefs, dwarfs, beliefs If a word ends in y look at the letter before the y. If it is a vowel just add an s. Toy = toys. If it is a consonant take off the y and add ies e.g. Fairy = fairies. Silent Letters These are tricky words because you can’t hear the silent letter. You need to learn them! Here are some common ones. Look out for key words with silent letters in other subject areas e.g. environment, parliament Autumn biscuit tongue salmon column half calm almond Wednesday climb , mortgage knock Gnome comb debt tomb foreign rhythm knew rhyme

10. Short definition: It means ‘without a doubt’. What is the word class? Word with the same prefix/suffix? Highlight the hard part Adverb Degrade creatively Is there a root word? How many syllables? Finite 4 Words within the word? Is there a prefix? Challenge: what does it mean? Is there a suffix? Challenge: what does it mean? Fin Nit finite ‘De’ Can mean: removal, negation, descent or reversal. ‘ly’ Means ‘having’ or ‘full of’. Put it into a sentence I definitely want to learn how to drive a car one day. Short definition: What is the word class? Word with the same prefix/suffix? Highlight the hard part Is there a root word? How many syllables? Words within the word? Is there a prefix? Challenge: what does it mean? Is there a suffix? Challenge: what does it mean? Put it into a sentence

11. Homophone Hotspots Look through this list with a partner and check you are confident with using every word correctly in a sentence. Affect – the verb e.g. Some people believe computer games affect young people’s brains negatively. Effect – usually a noun e.g. The new law goes into effect in January. Break – to damage something or take a break. Brake – reduce speed e.g. in a car. Sent – e.g. away on a journey. Scent – a lovely smell. Threw – he threwa ball. Through –he went through the door. Loose – e.g. The chains had worked loose. Lose – I would rather win than lose. There – the place. Their – belonging to them. They’re – they are. Witch – these feature in Macbeth. Which –which one would you like? Practise – the verb e.g. I must practise the piano. Practice – the noun e,g, The doctor’s practice was the other side of town. Aloud –he spoke out loud. Allowed –he was given permission. Weather – it is raining. Whether –whetheror not? Its – belonging to it – its kennel was made of wood. It’s – it is e.g. It’s dark tonight. Father – a dad. Farther – away. Use fartherto discuss physical distances, as in He wentfartherdown the road. Furthershould be used for figurative distance or to discuss degree or extent, as in I wanted to discuss itfurther, but we didn't have time. • HOMONYMS are words that sound alike but have differentmeanings. Homophones are a type of homonym that also sound alike and have differentmeanings, but have different spellings. HOMOGRAPHS are words that are spelled the same but have differentmeanings. Can you think of other examples? :

12. How effective are you at proof reading? Task: Proof read 3 paragraphs of your own writing carefully and then do this for a writing partner. What mistakes can you find? The following paragraph includes 10 incorrect spellings. Find them and rewrite them correctly. We where hoping for good whether for Sports Day. Unfortunately on Friday morning it was poring with rain. Luckily, by ten o’clock it was clear and sunny. I was very exited when I got to the stadium but I had a long weight for my race, the 200 meters. Their were eight of us in the final. I was in the inside lane, witch I don’t usually like but I ran well round the bend and was second comming into the straight. As I crossed the line I was neck and neck with Jo. It wasn’t until the teacher congratulated me that I new I had definately won.

13. Spelling strategies and personal targets You may be able to improve your spelling through: 1. Practising spellings using the look-cover-write-check method. Use a highlighter or different colour pen to make you focus on where you are making a mistake. 2. Using mnemonics (memory aids e.g. Necessary = one coat and two socks). 3. Sounding out words and breaking into sections. There’s a rat in ‘separate.’ 4. Check if you are in the habit of spelling any high frequency words incorrectly with your teacher. It may be that you often get homophones confused or you need to practise when to double consonants. 5. Display key words for your subjects in your bedroom at home or write on a notes page on your phone. It is important you get these right in exams. Test yourself: Are you confident with the following? friend, believe, disappoint, necessary, responsible, quietly, because, accommodation, beginning, library, useful Identify the correct spelling: 1. We had no/know idea where/ wear we were going. 2. Its/It’s Tuesday tomorrow. 3. Hurry up or you’ll miss football practice/ practise. Set yourself a spelling target below. Target:

14. Some common mistakes LOOK COVER WRITE CHECK Disappear Disappoint Embarrass Existence Fahrenheit Foreign Glamorous Government Humorous Idiosyncrasy Immediately Interrupt Independent Knowledge Liaison Necessary Noticeable Occurred Persistent Politician Preferred Propaganda Publicly Received Referred Resistance Separate Successful Tendency Tomorrow Truly Unfortunately Weird

15. Section 3. Sentence Structure and Variety. In your own writing you need to add variety and appeal through varying sentences: 1. Writing confidently in a range of sentences. There are three main types: simple, compound and complex. a. Simple sentences only have one clause: Tom was always late (good to use if you want your writing to be straightforward and clear. They can also add impact after longer sentences. Fragments (e.g. one word sentences e.g. ‘Silence!’ can also be used for dramatic effect. b. Compound sentences combine clauses with a conjunction (and/ or/ but). Avoid using these words too often ,as it makes writing dull and repetitive, use a more interesting connective where possible. Tom borrowed some money but he forgot to pay it back. (note you don’t use a comma with and/ but) Tom borrowed some money, unfortunately, he forgot to pay it back. c. Complex sentences include relative (subordinate) clauses to add detail and variety . ‘Tom borrowed some money, as he had fallen heavily into debt, following a disastrous night in a casino. 2. You can also add variety by using questions, exclamations and commands in viewpoint writing. Be wary of overusing exclamation marks, however, as this can make you writing seem simplistic. 3. Begin your sentences in different ways: e.g. In descriptive writing tart the sentence with a verb, adverb or preposition . 4. Expand details in the sentence by including noun phrases (e.g. Instead of: She was given a puppy/ She was given a puppy with soft brown eyes and huge paws. Adverbial phrases e.g. In the meantime, for better for worse also add detail. Or include embedded clauses e.g. Koala bears, although they look cuddly, can be extremely fierce. 5. Putting a ‘group of three’ in a sentence is another good effect, particularly in persuasive writing. Review your extended writing in different subjects and check you are consciously varying sentences for effect.

16. Unpacking the sentence structure of difficult texts. • You need to be confident with commenting on sentence structure and the effect writers’ are trying to create for the reading sections in the English Language Papers. In particular, for English Paper 1 Q 3 with the focus on structure. • Many 19th century texts use more complex, extended sentences so you need to be able to unpack complex sentences. Identify the main clause, consider where this comes in the sentence, consider what is the extra information given in the sentence and the effect of the order. Also consider the effect of punctuation and the pauses it creates as it takes us through the ‘thought journey’ of a sentence. • Practise highlighting the main clause in challenging texts and consider what the subordinate clause(s)/ phases add. • Consider whether the structure of the sentence reflects the attitudes of the writer/ viewpoint to the subject. • Consider how and why short, simple sentences are used – do they create an abrupt tone for example? • Consider if repetition or threads of ideas/ words are used for effect to reinforce a message or idea. Punctuation linked to complex sentences Annotate sentence types and the effect in your prose text – Jekyll and Hyde.

17. Structural Effects in Texts Now look at a longer extract from the same novel and annotate for sentence effects. Look for sentence types, patterns, unusual structure, repetition, contrast, the order of ideas and use of punctuation. Also consider paragraphing organisation and effect. So listen. Listen and there is more to hear. The rattle of a dustbin lid knocked to the floor. The scrawl and scratch of two hackle-raised cats. The sudden thunder crash of bottles emptied into crates. The slam-slam of car doors, the changing of gears, the hobbled clip-clop of a slow walk home. The rippled roll of shutters pulled down on late night cafes, a crackled voice crying street names for taxis, a loud scream that lingers and cracks into laughter, a bang that might just be an old car backfiring, a callbox calling for an answer, a treeful of birds tricked into morning, a whistle and a shout and a broken glass, a blare of soft music and a blam of hard beats, a barking and yelling and singing and crying and it all swells up all the rumbles and crashes and bangings and slams, all the noise and the rush and the non-stop wonder of the song of the city you can hear if you listen the song and it stops in some rare and sacred dead time, sandwiched between the late sleepers and early risers, there is a miracle of silence, Everything has stopped. At this point look just at structure not language effects. Look at the following two sentences from a novel by Jon McGregor, one of which is a minor sentence (or ‘fragment’ – lacking a key element that makes a full sentence e.g. subject or verb), the other a complex sentence. So listen. He traverses streets of dirty, straggling houses, with now and then an unexpected court composed of buildings, as ill-proportioned and deformed as the half-naked children that wallow in the kennels. Consider: Which sentence gives you more detailed description? Which one forces you to stop? Which one has the slowest pace? How does it do this? Which one creates the most drama and tension? Which one creates a visual image?

18. Paragraphing and Planning Paragraphs are needed to structure and organise your writing. • In simplistic terms you start a new paragraph when you talk about a new point, character, place or time but you should now be asking how can you use paragraphs to make your writing interesting, original and fluent? • It is important to plan your writing in order to get paragraphs in the right order. The order depends on the purpose of your writing – e.g chronological for a story, logical for an explanation. Your extended writing pieces for GCSE are descriptive for Paper 1 and viewpoint for Paper 2. • Beginnings and ending are always important. The first paragraph must grab the reader’s interest and clearly establish the form and purpose of writing. The last paragraph must give a definite ending – perhaps referring back to the beginning, ending with a question or a short sentence for impact. Remember to: • Consider using topic sentences to start each paragraph in viewpoint writing. Then build on this topic sentence by adding reasons, examples and explanations. Remember your persuasive techniques for variety and engagement. • Use connectives to signpost your writing; e.g. Although, however, furthermore, on reflection... • Consider using minor sentences in a paragraph on their own for dramatic impact in descriptive writing. Repeat structures for effect. Mirror ideas or key words from your first paragraph in your last paragraph. • Plan using a mind map to build ideas. Brainstorm first then decide on the sequence. Or you may prefer to plan through a series of bullet points. Introduction Para 1 Set yourself a target linked to planning/ paragraphing: ................................................................................................................................................................ Level descriptors for organisation and paragraphing: Band 4: well constructed text shaping, wide range of discourse markers used for cohesion. Band 3: clearly organised paragraphs, links made between sentences and discourse markers used.

19. Section 5. Improving Vocabulary and Enriching Writing • Choose words appropriate to your audience and purpose: • E.g. Formal for a discussion, informal for a teenage audience, emotive for persuasive writing, technical for information writing. • Task: • Build up a vocabulary bank of more sophisticated words. Use them 3 times within a week to embed them into your own vocabulary. • Build up a generic bank of imagery you could possibly use in your extended writing. A wide vocabulary helps your writing and makes it more interesting and precise. Adjectives and adverbs can improve descriptions: E.g. He lay the axe on the ground He lay the battered axe wearily on the ground. Longer words can be more impressive – an atrocious attack, an unacceptable request Try to be precise in your use of nouns and verbs E.g. The cat sat in the shed. x The cat lounged in the summer house. (better) Also consider using stylistic devices and figurative language for effect. Alliteration: e.g. The ridiculous rodent Roland rat Similes: as dull as a grey Sunday Metaphors : the sausages were put to the sword without mercy Personification: the silence sat uncomfortably in the room Onomatopoeia; with a crash and clap like thunder the boy burst out of the cake with a whoop of joy. Hyperbole (exaggeration) for effect. E.g. The greatest experience of your life. Build your own … Vocabulary Bank e.g. Epitome Austere Benevolent Diligent Cacophony Fragility Gregarious Homogenous Idiosyncratic Imagery Bank Icicles dripped like translucent daggers. The grass, a velvet carpet. Ivy wrapped its fingers around the windows, suffocating the view.

20. New Vocabulary Imagery and language

21. Exemplar Descriptive Writing Climbing Cryb Goch Anxiously I tug on my thick woolly socks. The sparkling peak of Snowdon looms like an iceberg above me. My skin tingles the air is so cold. Boots next, numb fingers fumble with the laces. Other walkers are getting ready too, chattering animatedly to one another, their voices seem amplified in the breathless, chilly air. Everyone is eagerly anticipating their day, but I'm not so sure. We set off along the Pyg track, our boots crunching through the snow, Cryb Goch looms above, an intimidating sight. A shiver of fear runs down my spine and the hair on the back of my neck prickles. Everyone else wants to go this way, but I'd rather take an easier route. Someone fell off last week! A nerve-jangling scramble and Cryb Goch lies before me, a spiny white lizard's back stretching into the distance. Was it a trick of the light or did I see it twitch, preparing to send me tumbling? A butterfly of panic flutters in my stomach and I struggle to quell it. Slowly I set off on my crawl while my companions trip like mountain goats along the craggy ridge. How do they do it? The next hour is a blur of scraped knees, glimpses of dizzying drops and mumbled prayers. Ah! The top! Thank God! My prayers have been answered! I deserve a cup of tea. Is it just me, or does lukewarm tea poured from a flask you have lugged all the way up a mountain taste the best? I break off a big chunk of milk chocolate - the rich smell fills my nostrils. Mmmmm! Now, how do we get down? • Identify and annotate for: the descriptive techniques used, sentence/ punctuation variety, structure. Can you write the next paragraph and describe the journey down?

22. Key Reading skills Scanning and skimming Skills In order to read efficiently in an exam situation, in other subjects as well as English, you need these skills. Scanning is when you look over a text to quickly find specific information linked to a question. Scan for relevant material and highlight so you don’t lose it! Skimming is when you get the general idea of a text by locating the key ideas and not reading every word. Look for the topic sentences at the start of paragraphs. Practise these reading skills with non fiction texts. Remember you will need to locate and analyse specific information in other subjects such as Geography and History. Using textual support and achieving depth of analysis. • You are used to using the PEE sequence to make a point, use evidence and explore the effect. For further variety and sophistication you could: • Embed quotations within your answer • Use a quotation as a starting point to present an idea. • Use close textual reference instead of direct quotation. • Embedding quotations mean your writing will be more fluent. E.g. Macbeth immediately feels the consequences of Duncan’s murder as he reflects he, ‘shall sleep no more.’ This communicates in a simple but powerful way how he has sacrificed his humanity and ability to be at peace. He will suffer the torment of his conscience and this will be inescapable. • Starting with a quotation can add variety and be a powerful opening. ‘Out, out brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow.’ Macbeth’s philosophical despair at the end of the play reinforces the play’s message that, for a usurper, misery and emptiness will characterise their existence. At the time of the play’s first performance, with threats to King James’ position on the throne a present reality, this would have been even more significant. Obviously the metaphor would have also carried more weight with the brevity of candle’s light being part of everyday life. • With the change to closed text exams there is less expectation to use extensive quotations in textual analysis and it is just as useful to give a textual reference by referring to a precise detail or moment in a play , poem or novel. Summarising and Synthesising skills For Language Paper 2 you need to be able to summarise and synthesise, drawing together ideas from two texts in a fluent way. Look for key topic sentences at the start of each paragraph. Highlighting key ideas in texts and using venn diagrams or numbering the points may be useful for organising before you write. Look for quotations you can ‘pair up’ from different texts that deal with similar things. Use linking words to make connections such as whereas, similarly, in contrast. Follow the sequence: point – quotation – inference -link

23. Some key terms – you need to know and use Explicit – information that is openly stated. Implicit - information that is not openly stated but implied. You have to ‘read between the lines’ and make an inference. Connotation – implied meaning. For example a heart has connotations of love and sincerity. Emotive language – words that evoke certain feelings or emotions such as pity or anger. Diction and register – refer to the writer’s choice of words and vocabulary. Semantic field – using a pattern of words or phases linked to a particular subject for effect. Rhetoric – the art of speaking and influencing. Rhetorical techniques are used to persuade a reader e.g. rhetorical questions. Hyperbole – another word for exaggeration. Onomatopoeia – the use of words which sound like their meaning e.g. creaked and clunked. Alliteration – repeated consonant sounds, consider whether the effect creates a harsh (d,k,g), soft (s,f) or explosive sound (p, b). Sibilance – alliteration using the repeated s sound. Assonance – repetition of repeated vowel sounds. Often creating a softer effect. Similes – comparisons with like or as ‘’straight as a young larch tree’ Metaphors – a comparison written as if it were something else, ‘Beth was an angel.’ Personification – makes a thing, idea or feeling into a person. Pathetic fallacy - description of nature and the weather to reflect the mood and situation of a character. Symbol – an object which represents a feeling or idea, e.g. a dove represents peace. Stanza – group of lines in a poem Discourse markers – connectives that signpost changes and links in writing. Anecdotes - personal stories used to add interest. Direct address – use of personal pronouns (you/ your) Soliloquy – speech to the audience in a Shakespeare play. Iambic pentameter – verse structure used by Shakespeare and often in sonnets. Pentameter means there are 5 stressed syllables on each line. Iambic means refers to the stress falling on the second syllable, This creates a sense of rhythm and control, it is sometimes said it mirrors the rhythm of natural speech and is like a heartbeat. Sometimes Shakespeare varies the rhythm to make a particular word or idea stand out. ‘Oh she doth teach the torches to shine bright.’ Caesura - punctuation in the middle of a line of verse. Enjambment – when a line ‘runs on’ to the next with no punctuation. Oxymoron – putting opposite words together for effect e.g. bright smoke. Juxtaposition – contrasting opposing ideas. Protagonist – the main character in a story. Colloquial – conversational and casual style. Ambiguous – could be interpreted in more than one way. Omniscient – all seeing narrative perspective. Persona – the voice of a character in poem. Dramatic monologue – a poem written in the first person. Archaic – outdated. Blank verse – poetry with a regular metre but no rhyme. Free verse – poetry with no regular pattern of rhyme or metre.

24. Widening your vocabulary for literary analysis: Verbs you could use for literary analysis Adjectives to describe an author’s viewpoint Adjectives to describe style/ tone and diction Words linked to structure/ viewpoint: chronological in medias res flash back flash forward omniscient nostalgic impersonal reflective

25. Different words to describe imagery: Bucolic pastoral auditory religious animal tactile chaotic war/ military domestic Words to describe characters – can you link these words to a character from a text you have studied? Words for viewpoint and argument

26. Notes Page