The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution Chapter 26

The Great West and the Agricultural RevolutionChapter 26 1865-1896

I. The Clash of Cultures on the Plains • After Civil War frontier in America steadily marched westward • On Great Plains relatively few white settlers right after Civil War, habitat of Indian, buffalo • 1860 most Native Americans confined to this region • Migration and conflict not foreign to tribes, many had been pushed westward by white settlement and clashed with other tribes • White soldiers and settlers in the decades before the Civil War accelerated a fateful cycle of disease, environmental destruction and settlement that undermined foundations of Native American culture • Inevitable clash between acquisitive, industrial civilization and Native American culture • By 1890 entire region populated by American settlers

I. CLASH OF CULTURES ON THE PLAINS • American policy since the 1830’s had been resettlement and confinement of Native Americans • 1850’s beginning of reservation system, established boundaries for Indian and white settlement • Whites misunderstood basic structure of Indian culture in these agreements • 1860’s intensification of policy of confinement, herded Indians into smaller reservations • Indians received promises from federal government for food, clothing and supplies, run by Indian agents that were often corrupt • Decade after Civil War saw increase of warfare on Plains • Army troops met formidable resistance by Native Americans • 20% of U.S. soldiers were African American (buffalo soldiers)

II. Receding Native Population • 1864- Sand Creek, CO U.S troops attack Indian camp, kill 400 • 1866- Sioux ambush US Calvary in MT, killing all; one of the few Indian victories (whites abandon region temporarily) • 1868- Ft. Laramie Agreement guarantees new reservation to Sioux • 1874- gold discovered in Black Hills of North Dakota, white settlers swarm to region that was part of Sioux land and Indians took to the warpath • 1876- Gen. George Custer attacks Indian force on Little Bighorn River (MT), superior Indian force wipes out all of Custer’s troops

II. Receding Native Population • 1877- US authorities try to heard Nez Perce of Idaho onto reservations, pursue then for 3 months and send to reservation in KS • 1880’s Apache of Arizona one of the last tribes to be subdued by US troops • Indian policy shattered spirit, ghettoized Indians on reservations, placed them on marginal lands • Became wards of the government, easier to feed than fight • RR’s instrumental in defeat; brought people (soldiers, farmers, settlers), white disease and alcohol contributed • Destruction of buffalo that had provided sustenance to Plains culture was also a factor

III. The End of the Trail • 1880’s national conscience turned to plight of NA’s • Helen Hunt Jackson A Century of Dishonor (1881) recorded ruthless government dealing with Indians • Some Americans sympathized with Indians, some wanted policy of forced containment, neither side showed much respect for Indian culture and wanted Indians to assimilate into American culture (boarding schools, Carlisle Indian School) • Ghost Dance cult of 1890 (centered on Sioux reservation in the Dakota Territory) • Religious revival to banish white settlers and bring back the buffalo (Ghost Dance) • Grew in popularity, U.S. government became concerned • Wounded Knee Indian Reservation, soldiers fired into a group protesting death of Sitting Bull, 100 men, women, children killed • End of Native American resistance

III. End of the Trail • 1887Dawes Severalty Act dissolved tribes as legal entities, wiped out tribal ownership of land, provided families 160 acres of land, citizenship in 25 years • Reservation land not allotted was sold to settlers, proceeds used for education of tribes • Tried to make farmers out of Indians, ignored tradition of tribally held lands • Forced assimilation was Indian policy for 50 years

IV. Mining Boom :From Dishpan to Ore Breaker • After Civil War millions of acres of land permanently altered by humans • Ming first great boom (three phases) A. Discovery B. People pour into area C. Communities grew, others saw opportunity supply miners • Gold and silver discoveries across West (CA, CO, ID, MT, NV) brought miners, settlers • Boomtowns sprang up where lynch law and vigilante justice reigned • Once surface gold was mined, big industry moved in • Big business entered mining 1870’s • Capital used to buy equipment, hire crews of immigrant labor • Mining companies caused extensive environmental damage • Federal government supported large mining operations- provided inexpensive land, approved patents, provided RR land to move out ore • Mining boom helped fuel nations industrial growth, injected silver issue into American politics, caused conflict with Native Americans

V. Beef Bonanzas and the Long Drive • Texas plains great for raising of beef, no way to profitably get them to market • Issue solved by building of RR’s, cattle could be shipped to stockyards of KC and Chicago • “Beef barons”, Swift, Armor; and a highly industrialized meatpacking industry developed • Products could be processed and shipped on refrigerated car to eastern urban centers • 1866-1888 ‘Long Drive”, “cow towns” sprang up • Age of the cowboy • End of “open range” ranching mid 1880’s • Invention of barbed wire • Supply of beef exceeded demand • Extreme winters, droughts (1886-1887) • Ranchers used hay to feed cattle • Farmers began to settle on open range, brought by railroads

VI. The Farmers’ Frontier • Homestead Act 1862 allowed settlers to acquire 160 ac. of land by living on it for 5 years, paying nominal fee • Land divided along section, township lines set out in Northwest Ordinance • Public land given away to fill it up, not for revenue, provide stimulus to family farm • Many purchased land from RR, states and land companies • Land speculators took advantage of system to grab up best land • RR’s induced immigrants with cheap land • Higher wheat prices, iron plows made marginal land more attractive • 160 acres inadequate on arid Great Plains • Innovations in farming, new types of grain made region profitable for agriculture • Drought persistent problem, farming techniques led to “Dust Bowl” of the 1930’s • Federal government financed huge irrigation projects to allow for agriculture in region; had more to do with shaping of west than settlers, miners, cowboys

VII. Far West Comes of Age and the Fading Frontier • Far West growth in population from 1870-1890 • Republican Congress gathered more Republican votes during period with admission of states • 1889 Oklahoma open to white settlers, no longer “permanent” Indian reservation • 1890 superintendant of the census declared frontier “closed” • 1893 Fredrick Jackson Turner’s “The Significance of the Frontier on American History” published • Americans disturbed to find free land gone • 1872-1890- Government began to set aside land for national parks (Sequoia, Yellowstone, Yosemite)

VIII. The Fading Frontier • Frontier seen as symbol of opportunity, could always start over • Land was many settlers most profitable crop • Frontier acted as a safety valve for displaced; you could always move west • Did not really happen, too expensive to get into farming, possibility of moving west kept industrial wages higher (maybe) • Settling Trans-Mississippi West distinct chapter in American history • Collision of Anglo, Indian, Mexican cultures where Anglo’s established dominance • Scale and severity of environment had unique challenges that were met by massive government action (RR’s, irrigation, Homestead Act) that played a role in economic and social development

IX. The Farm Becomes a Factory • Situation of American farmers changing • High process for specialized cash crops provided profits to buy manufactured goods • Large scale farmers became business people, part of the new industrial order • Tied into RR’s, banks, manufacturing • Costly equipment, lack of business sense by many farmers led to banks, RR’s and global marketplace becoming scapegoats • Mechanization and expense took many farmers off lands • American agriculture became butcher, breadbasket of the world

X. Deflation Dooms the Debtor • One crop economy good as long as prices high • Prices were determined on world market (which also experienced mechanization) • Low process, deflated currency, static money supply (not enough dollars to go around) chief concerns of farmers • Many operated year after year at a loss • Vicious cycle: machines increased output, supply lowered price, had more debt • High rates of interest from banks ruined many farmers • By 1880 ¼ of all farms operated by tenants, industrial feudalism

Declining Farm Prices 1865-1910

XI. Unhappy Farmers • Nature conspired against farmers- grasshoppers, floods, drought • In the South the boll weevil wreaked havoc on the cotton crop in the 1890’s • Government over assessed their land for taxes • Protective tariffs keep prices high on the international market, also had to buy high priced (tariff protected) goods at home • Corporations that supplied farm equipment, seed, fertilizer controlled prices • Grain storage operators and RR’s charged high fees • 1890- ½ of population farmers but they had nobody to organize them (by nature individualistic and independent)

XII. The Farmers Take Their Stand • 1867- The National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry (Grange) founded • Enhance isolated lives of farmers, provide social, fraternal, educational activities • 1875- 800,000 members mostly in Midwest and South • Began to concern themselves with collective plight of farmers • Established cooperatively owned stores, grain elevators and warehouses • Entered politics to control grain, freight prices, had biggest success in Upper Midwest • Many “Granger” laws were struck down by the Supreme Court (Wabash vs. Illinois) and their influence faded

XIII. Prelude to Populism • Late 1870’sFarmers’ Alliances established in Texas • Grassroots movement • By 1890 over 1 million members • Organized to break control of RR’s through cooperative buying and selling • Ignored plight of tenant farmers, excluded blacks • Racial division kept farmers from working together • Blacks formed Colored Farmers’ National Alliance • By 1890’s Farmers Alliances prelude to Populist Party • Farmers organized to attack money trust of Wall Street • Wanted nationalization of banks, RR’s, telephone, telegraph and called for graduated income tax • Biggest issue was coinage of silver, to create money flow and make debt easier to pay • Party wanted to relive farmers problems, unite farmers and urban workers • 1892 election won several congressional seats • Racial division kept them apart in the South, more popular in the West

XIV. Coxey’s Army and the Pullman Strike • Panic 1893 strengthened Populist position’ • Armies of unemployed began marching to protest plight • 1894- most famous Jacob Coxey and followers, marched on Washington to demand federal works program to ease unemployment • Violent strikes, labor protest • Pullman Strike in Chicago • Eugene V. Debs, labor leader, organized strike to protest wage cuts and no living cuts in company town • Paralyzed rail traffic across nation • Cleveland sends out federal troops (justification to keep mail moving), crushed strike and sent Debs to prison • Debs sent to prison because he ignored court injunction to stop strike, first time this tactic used • Seen by labor as proof of government, business, court alliance

Populist Party Cartoon 1892

XV. GOLDEN MCKINLEY AND SILVER BRYAN • 1896 farmers and labor wanted relief, conservatives feared upheaval • Monetary policy major issue of election of 1896 • William McKinley backed by Mark Hanna was nominee of Republican Party • Republican platform favored big business, hard money policies, protective tariff and the gold standard • Democrats were divided at convention until Nebraskan William Jennings Bryan gave his “Cross of Gold” speech that brought him the nomination • Platform demanded unlimited coinage of silver at 32:1 creating

XVI. Class Conflict: Plow holders Vs. Bondholders • Populists endorsed Bryan, Democratic party took over agrarian politics • Bryan traveled around country preaching free silver • Caused panic for Republican “gold bugs”, Hanna used slush fund to push McKinley • Republican business people used fear of unemployment and economic hard times to win support • Huge voter turnout, McKinley won election • New era in American politics, ascendancy of urban, middle class voter, Republican grip on White House until FDR, diminishing voter turnout, rise of new political issues- industrial regulation and welfare of labor

Why Did Populism Decline? The economy experienced rapid change. The era of small producers and farmers was fading away. Race divided the Populist Party, especially in the South. The Populists were not able to breakexisting party loyalties. Most of their agenda was co-opted bythe Democratic Party.

XVII. Republican Stand-pattisim Enthroned McKinley as president – business given free reign, trusts allowed to develop, tariffs high (46.5%) Prosperity returned, farm prices rose, all credit given to Republicans Money issue faded away- new gold deposits found around the world, new technology allowed for extraction of gold Caused more gold on market, increased supply and inflated value of currency redeemed in gold Gold Standard Act of 1900 allowed paper currency to be redeemed freely in gold, victory for conservatives

Empire and Expansion 1890-1909 Chapter 27

I. America Turns Outward • Immediately following Civil War country more concerned with Reconstruction, industrialization • By turn of century America began to look outward • Competition with other nations in scramble for empire (Germany, Russia, Britain, Japan) • This shift conflicted with American anti—colonial traditions

I. America Turns Outward • United States had surplus of goods to sell- manufactured items, farm products • Advances in transportation, communication quickened pace of commerce • Belief in national superiority • Belief in Social Darwinism • Tradition of “Manifest Destiny” • Frontier had been seen as “safety valve” for discontent, expansion became way to get rid of these feelings • All these ideas used to justify imperialism • Alfred T. Mahan during 1890’s urged American leaders to: • Build up navy • Acquire foreign bases for supplies, fuel • Build the Panama Canal • Idea that control of the sea was key to world dominance

I. America Turns Outward • “Big Sister” policy aligned Latin American nations with US into opening new markets • 1899 first Pan American Conference • 1880’s- 1890’s new American international aggression, showed willingness of Americans to risk war and militaristic mood of Americans • Issues with Germans over Pacific Islands • Hostilities with Chile and Canada • Issues with British resurfaced, British in no mood for war with US because of other issues, developed closer ties with Americans • Cleveland invoked idea of Monroe Doctrine to keep European powers from interfering

II. Spurning the Hawaiian Pear • 1820 first American missionaries come to Hawaii, want to win converts to Christianity and the “American” way • Hawaii becomes center for sugar production, idea of extension of America • 1840’s other countries warned to stay out of Hawaii’s affairs • 1887- Americans sign treaty guaranteeing access to naval base rights in Pearl Harbor, islands needed as a refueling/resupply for American shipping across the Pacific • American sugar growers import Asian labor to work in sugar fields, outnumber native Hawaiians • 1890’s economic crisis-high tariff made sugar prices too high • New queen took rights away from planters • 1893 planters overthrow Queen Liliuokalani • U.S. Marines help rebels • Sanford Dole, leader of new government , asks U.S. to annex Hawaii, lower tariffs on sugar • President Cleveland refused to sign agreement, apologized for American conduct • 1897 California businessmen had close ties with planters • Fear that Japanese would take over Hawaii • Pressured President McKinley to annex Hawaii (1898)

III. Cubans Rise in Revolt • 1890’s Spanish empire weak, small • Included Cuba, Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico • American businessmen invested ($50 m) in sugarcane industry in Cuba, wanted stability • Sugar industry backbone of Cuban industry, high tariffs threatened industry • Cuban leader Jose Marti started war for independence, Spanish soldiers brutally put it down, place Cubans in concentration camps • Americans favored Cubans- fight for freedom, Spanish tactics gained sympathy • Businessmen worried about economic interest and wanted rebellion to end ($100 million in trade) • Journalists heightened dislike for Spanish • Yellow Journalism heightened American jingoism • President McKinley warns Spanish to establish peace, ordered battleship Maine to Havana harbor to protect American citizens

III. Cubans Rise in Revolt • Feb. 1898 Maine mysteriously blows up in Havana Harbor • Final straw for Americans • Newspapers inflame war fever • McKinley does not want war, public and election concerns push him into it • April 1898 Congress approves war and passes Teller Amendment that US would not annex Cuba once Spain was defeated • US Navy blockades weaker Spanish in Santiago harbor • Troops poorly trained, poor weapons, not prepared for tropical climate (equipped for fighting Indians on the Great Plains) • Cavalry unit (Rough Riders) led by future President Theodore Roosevelt along with African American Calvary units took San Juan Hill • Two days later Americans defeat Spanish navy • Within weeks US controlled Puerto Rico as well • December 1898 Treaty of Paris ends war • Disease(typhoid, dysentery, malaria) more deadly than Spanish bullets

IV. War in the Philippines • Assistant Sec. of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt orders Adm. George Dewey to sail to Philippines • May 1898 American ships surprise Spanish navy in Manila Bay, destroy fleet • Guerillas led by Emilio Aguinaldo help US defeat Spanish army • August 1898 Spanish troops surrender to the United States

V. America’s Course (Curse) of Empire • What to do with new empire? • Treaty of Paris gave U.S. control of Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico • U.S. paid $20 million for Philippines • Philippines were biggest problem- ethnically diverse, but did not want islands to fall into hands of Germany, Japan, different culture, language and governmental institutions • American duty to “civilize” inferior people • Profits for American investors • Questions of national identity- how would these new territories be assimilated into America (before all territorial acquisition eventually became states) • Anti-Imperialistic League argued against expansion (cost, questioned consent of governed) • Had many prominent members Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, William Jennings Bryan among the leaders • 1898- Treaty approved by Senate, America gains stature in the world

VI. Perplexities in Cuba and Puerto Rico • Did Constitution follow flag? Did American laws apply to newly acquired possessions? • Puerto Rico • 1900 - Foraker Act. • PR became an “unincorporated territory.” • Citizens of PR, not of the US. • Import duties on PR goods (made money for US off their work) • 1901-1903 Insular Cases. • Constitutional rights were not automatically extended to territorial possessions. • Congress had the power to decide these rights. • Import duties laid down by the Foraker Act were legal • 1917 – Jones Act. • Gave full territorial status to PR. • Removed tariff duties on PR goods coming into the US. • PRs elected their own legislators & governor to enforcelocal laws. • PRs could NOT vote in US presidential elections. • A resident commissioner was sent to Washington to vote for PR in the House.

VI. Perplexities in Cuba and Puerto Rico • US improved finance, education, government and public health in Cuba • Wiped out yellow fever • US withdrew form Cuba 1902; to keep Cuba in sphere of US influence they included Platt Amendment in their constitution • Platt Amendment (1903) • Cuba was not to enter into any agreements with foreign powers that would endanger its independence. • The U.S. could intervene in Cuban affairs if necessary to maintain an efficient, independent govt. • Cuba must lease Guantanamo Bay to the U.S. for naval and coaling station. • Cuba must not build up an excessive public debt.

VII. Little Brown Brothers in the Philippines • Aguinaldo thought the U.S. was an ally and Philippines would become independent • U.S. decided to keep Philippines • Aguinaldo organized insurrection, relied on guerilla warfare • American military used extraordinary measures to put down insurrection • Put Filipino citizens in concentration camps • Spring 1901 captured Aguinaldo • Insurrection did not end, but lowered the morale of guerillas • 5,000 Americans and 200,000 Filipinos died • $400 million spent fighting in Philippines • 1901William Howard Taft governor, censors press, jails insurgents • Extended limited self rule, ordered construction of roads, schools, attempt to assimilate and civilize Filipinos • 1916 Congress passes Jones Act allows for Philippine independence • 1946 achieve independence

VII. Hinging in the Open Door in China • By 1899 European (Britain, Germany, France , Russia) countries divided China into “spheres of influence” • In each zone the countries had exclusive access to ports and markets • Japan expanded regional influence into China, Korea • U.S. trade limited in China • Feared tariff barriers • 1899 US Sec. of State John Hay dispatches Open Door note • Did not want colonies, just free trade and equal access • Wants other countries to respect Chinese rights and open economic competition

VII. Hinging in the Open Door in China • Chinese criticized Western culture and influence • May 1900 Chinese anti- imperialist secret society- “Boxers” took over foreign diplomat district in Beijing to expel foreign powers • Multinational force (Japanese, European, American) forces put down Boxer Rebellion • After rebellion European powers mistreated rebels, ordered Chinese government to pay for damages

viii. Election of 1900 and the Rise of TR • Military victory and economic prosperity led McKinley to re-election against William Jennings Bryan • VP was “war hero” Teddy Roosevelt • 1901 McKinley assassinated by anarchist in Buffalo, NY; Roosevelt becomes youngest president (42) • Roosevelt supported aggressive American posture in international affairs • He wanted to lead boldly, felt president could take any action in the public interest not specifically forbidden by the Constitution

IX. Building the Panama Canal • America looked to isthmus of Panama to build a canal to protect naval superiority, make easier defense of newly acquired possessions in the Caribbean and Pacific • Legal obstacles –Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (could not secure exclusive control over region to build canal) • Took care of problem with Hay-Pauncefote Treaty • Late 1800’s French company started building canal • 1903 U.S. purchased French claim $40 m • Needed consent of Columbian government to build canal, U.S. did not want to pay their price • U.S. secretly supported independence movement in Panama, sent warships to region • Panama granted independence and gives U.S. control over canal zone • Justified for purposes of national defense • 35,000 workers used to build canal-5,000 died • Opened in 1914 • Cut 8,000 miles from ocean trip around North and South America

X. Big Stick Diplomacy • U.S policy towards Latin America depended on strong military • U.S. saw this as moral obligation • Elite and Industry needed to accept challenge of international leadership • Latin American countries could not pay debts to European countries • 1904- Roosevelt issues Roosevelt Corollary • U.S would assume police power over countries in Latin America in cases of “chronic wrongdoing”, instead of European powers • Reasserted Monroe Doctrine keeping Western Hemisphere free of European intervention • Turned Caribbean into “Yankee Lake” • Latin American countries thought it was a way to control region through shield of protection, affected relations for decades

XI. Roosevelt on the World Stage • Roosevelt charged onto the world stage with the Russo-Japanese War (1904) • Japan wanted to extend their influence, did not approve of Europeans actions • Did not like Russian troops in Manchuria • 1904 Japan destroys Russian fleet, Russian troops • Beginning of Russo- Japanese War • Roosevelt wanted to keep balance of power, Japan saw war eventually not going their way and asked US for help, called peace conference Portsmouth, New Hampshire (1905) • Neither Japan or Russia felt satisfied, beginning of US/Japan rivalry in East Asia • Roosevelt won Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in Manchuria and North Africa

XII. Japanese Labor in California • Because of war many Japanese immigrants came to California • Many Californians were upset at “yellow peril” • 1906 San Francisco school board ordered segregation of schools to make room for white students • Incident caused international crisis, inflamed by press • 1908- Roosevelt forces “Gentlemen's’ Agreement” with Japan • A Japanese note agreeing to deny passports tolaborers entering the U.S. • Japan recognized the U.S. right to exclude Japanese immigrants holding passports issued by other countries. • The U.S. government got the school board of San Francisco to rescind their order to segregate Asians in separate schools • 1908-Root-Takahariaagreement both powers respect the others right to open door in China

XIII. The Great White Fleet • 1907-1909 - To impress other world powers Roosevelt sends entire battle fleet around the world

America as a Pacific Power

Taft and Dollar Diplomacy • 1908- William Howard Taft succeeded Roosevelt as president • Foreign policy was to maintain “open door policy in Asia, expand American trade, keep stability in Latin America • Substitute “dollars for bullets”, foreign diplomacy was what was best for American economic interests • Increase American investment in Latin America • Provide money for Latin American governments • Had to put money into Honduras and Haiti to keep out foreign funds • Used armed forces in Dominican Republic, Cuba and Honduras to protect American investments • 1913- sent Marines to Nicaragua to protect investments, stayed until 1925

Wilson and Moral Diplomacy • 1912 Woodrow Wilson, president, change course of foreign policy • Promote independent government in Latin America, not American control, condemned colonialism • Called “moral diplomacy”, US conscience of the world • Did use U.S. military- Haiti (1915) protect American investments, stayed for 17 years • Used soldiers in Dominican Republic, Mexico • 1917 signed Jones Act that gave Philippines territorial status and promised independence (achieved 1945)

Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico • Mexico wide gap between wealthy and poor, most were poor • Late 1800’s American investment in Mexico expanded • 1910 revolution in Mexico • 1913 military dictator executed new president, assumed power (General Huerta) • Wilson did not recognize government Mexican – American borderland culture • Chaos accelerated Mexican immigration to US, formation of Mexican – American borderland culture, threat to American investment • Favored Carranza, sent arms for support • U.S. Marines and warships sent to Veracruz, Mexico

Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico • U.S. Marines and warships sent to Veracruz, Mexico • American sailors arrested in Mexico, excuse needed to occupy Veracruz • All sides in Mexico resented Americans, caused downfall of Huerta, Carranza new president • Period of revolution saw rise of bandit gangs across Mexico • “Pancho” Villa attacks and kills Americans • 1916- Wilson sent 11,000 troops under Gen. John J. Pershing to find Villa • 1917- return to US because of WW I • World War I test of new American global strength • Mexico incident proving ground for new weapons used in WWI

The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution Chapter 26