Social Psychology Lecture 9

1. Social Psychology Lecture 9 Attitude change Advertising and fear appeals Jane Clarbour Room PS/B007 email: jc129 Tel: (01904-43) 3168 Lecture 9 � Introduction In the last lecture we have studied the relationship between beliefs, attitudes and behaviour in relation to the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour. We saw how beliefs influence attitudes quite generally, and how it is attitudes together with social norms and perceptions of behavioural control that is thought to influence behavioural intention. Importantly, the TRA and the TPB suggests that only behavioural intention (& Perceived Behavioural Control is predictive of actual behaviour and the level of specificity of the behavioural intent should be the same as the level of specificity as the actual behaviour. PUT UP OHP of beliefs, (fig 1) and TPB model So, any attempt of behavioural change should bear this relationship firmly in mind. Today, we are going to consider ways of manipulating other peoples behaviour through changing their beliefs� Lecture 9 � Introduction In the last lecture we have studied the relationship between beliefs, attitudes and behaviour in relation to the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour. We saw how beliefs influence attitudes quite generally, and how it is attitudes together with social norms and perceptions of behavioural control that is thought to influence behavioural intention. Importantly, the TRA and the TPB suggests that only behavioural intention (& Perceived Behavioural Control is predictive of actual behaviour and the level of specificity of the behavioural intent should be the same as the level of specificity as the actual behaviour. PUT UP OHP of beliefs, (fig 1) and TPB model So, any attempt of behavioural change should bear this relationship firmly in mind. Today, we are going to consider ways of manipulating other peoples behaviour through changing their beliefs�

2. Objectives Show an understanding of the role of �beliefs� in attitude change Provide a definition of what is meant by a �fear appeal� Contrast differing models of fear appeals Describe the main beliefs that Protection Motivation Theory considers essential for fear appeals to be effective Discuss why the minimal appeal may be more effective for behavioural change

4. How are the advertisers tying to influence you to buy these two products?How are the advertisers tying to influence you to buy these two products?

5. Belief formation Beliefs are formed 3 ways: Through active and direct observation of object � attribute relationships By being given information relating to the object which is accepted Through inferring object attribute relationships

6. Changing beliefs Two ways to change beliefs Active participation Direct observation of new attribute-object relation Problem of perception of relationship Persuasive communication Problem of acceptance of the relationship Active participation � very rarely question what see Problem is to make sure perceive the object-attribute association Active participation � very rarely question what see Problem is to make sure perceive the object-attribute association

7. Attitude change (Fishbein & Azjen, 1975) 2 ways to change attitudes Change current salient beliefs by supplying new belief Supply new attitude-object relation Small dogs are snappy Snappy dogs are guard dogs Change evaluation of the attributes Snappy dogs are bad Guard dogs are good 1) Change salient beliefs � Supply new beliefs (small dogs are snappy/dogs are guard dogs Put up OHP re beliefs (fig 1) Example of change of beliefs = Sweden study (Tuck & Tuck, 1975/6) Ss were asked to elicit beliefs about Sweden. 3 weeks later given persuasive communication containing many new target beliefs (what E wanted to Ss to believe) that were not part of their initial list. Immediately after this, E asked Ss what beliefs were about Sweden and some new beliefs were now elicited that included the target beliefs. These remained when tested again 1 week later. In comparison Controls who received no persuasive comm. Retained their initial beliefs at all trials. Or 2) Instead of attacking beliefs that an object has certain attributes, instead try changing the evaluation of some of those attributes (small dogs are snappy � being snappy makes them good guard dogs, guarding is good) Note: However changing beliefs about an attribute don�t always imply attitude change � sum total of beliefs may not change because weighting of favourability of different attributes may cancel out any new effects. Attitude change requires change of the total sum N of beliefs about the object.1) Change salient beliefs � Supply new beliefs (small dogs are snappy/dogs are guard dogs Put up OHP re beliefs (fig 1) Example of change of beliefs = Sweden study (Tuck & Tuck, 1975/6) Ss were asked to elicit beliefs about Sweden. 3 weeks later given persuasive communication containing many new target beliefs (what E wanted to Ss to believe) that were not part of their initial list. Immediately after this, E asked Ss what beliefs were about Sweden and some new beliefs were now elicited that included the target beliefs. These remained when tested again 1 week later. In comparison Controls who received no persuasive comm. Retained their initial beliefs at all trials. Or 2) Instead of attacking beliefs that an object has certain attributes, instead try changing the evaluation of some of those attributes (small dogs are snappy � being snappy makes them good guard dogs, guarding is good) Note: However changing beliefs about an attribute don�t always imply attitude change � sum total of beliefs may not change because weighting of favourability of different attributes may cancel out any new effects. Attitude change requires change of the total sum N of beliefs about the object.

8. Changing behavioural intentions 2 ways to change behavioural intentions Change attitude toward the behaviour Change belief Change evaluation of attribute Change subjective norms Attack specific normative beliefs Provide motivation to comply Change subjective norms Attack belief that most other people important to self would act this way. This generates inferential belief that this means that important others would want Ss to perform this behaviour. This is weighted by motivation to comply with their perceived wishes. Notes: Fishbein & Azjen�s motivation for compliance not clearly stated � may still refer to belief about power status in relation to important other Both attitude to behaviour and subjective norms influence behavioural intention. By influencing one it may change the weights of the other So, still might come back to changing beliefs about objects � these affect both subjective norms and attitude to behaviour at an earlier stage. So, what is the best way to induce behavioural change? Change subjective norms Attack belief that most other people important to self would act this way. This generates inferential belief that this means that important others would want Ss to perform this behaviour. This is weighted by motivation to comply with their perceived wishes. Notes: Fishbein & Azjen�s motivation for compliance not clearly stated � may still refer to belief about power status in relation to important other Both attitude to behaviour and subjective norms influence behavioural intention. By influencing one it may change the weights of the other So, still might come back to changing beliefs about objects � these affect both subjective norms and attitude to behaviour at an earlier stage. So, what is the best way to induce behavioural change?

9. Yale approachInternal processes of persuasion Attention Source of communication (high/low credibility) Comprehension Type of message (implicit or explicit) Emotive or rational Acceptance Latitude of acceptance or rejection Social Judgement Theory suggests that a persuasive communication exerts more pressure to change belief when there is a large discrepancy between what currently believed and what told as long as still within boundary of acceptance. Once the threshold for acceptance has been crossed into the latitude of rejection then change in position should decrease with discrepancy. The closer the message is perceived to be to the receiver's own stand, the more likely it will within the latitude of acceptance. SHOW OHP 2 (Yale approach to communication and persuasion)Social Judgement Theory suggests that a persuasive communication exerts more pressure to change belief when there is a large discrepancy between what currently believed and what told as long as still within boundary of acceptance. Once the threshold for acceptance has been crossed into the latitude of rejection then change in position should decrease with discrepancy. The closer the message is perceived to be to the receiver's own stand, the more likely it will within the latitude of acceptance. SHOW OHP 2 (Yale approach to communication and persuasion)

10. Message-learning approach 4 factors that influence persuasion What strengthens and weakens a persuasive message? Source variables (who) Message variables (says what) Medium or channel variables (how) Target variables (to whom) Who says what by what means and to whom Early Research (Hovland, 1950�s) Subjects were presented with written information relating to the safety of a submarine. Ss told article written either by: High credibility source Oppenheimer, the American physicist who supervised the construction Low credibility source Pravda, a Russian newspaper Readers who believed article written by high credibility source were more persuaded by its message immediately after reading it Note: Other studies found that attractive presenters perceived more credible! Early Research (Hovland, 1950�s) Subjects were presented with written information relating to the safety of a submarine. Ss told article written either by: High credibility source Oppenheimer, the American physicist who supervised the construction Low credibility source Pravda, a Russian newspaper Readers who believed article written by high credibility source were more persuaded by its message immediately after reading it Note: Other studies found that attractive presenters perceived more credible!

11. Credibility of source �Propaganda, to be effective, must be believed. To be believed, it must be credible� Hubert Humphrey (U.S. Senator and Vice President, 1911-1978) Credibility is based on 2 main factors: Expertise Trustworthiness

12. Message-learning (evidence based) approach to persuasion (Hovland et al., 1953, adapted from Franzoi, 2000) Stage 1 yes Stage 2 yes Stage 3 yes

13. Influence of message content Two types of message content Evidence based (Fact/information) Attention grabbing (Vivid story/picture) Evidence based appeals enhance persuasive messages Evidence enhances persuasion but not all evidence persuades. Evidence based appeals are more persuasive when credible Evidence based appeals increased when combined with imagery

14. Abstract (Glaser & Jones)

16. Emotive persuasion What is a �fear appeal�? Both attention grabbing and evidence based communication Intention of arousing fear as a means to induce attitude change Implies some sort of risk Arouses emotion of fear because of element of risk An evidence based persuasive message that provides information relating to negative consequences of a particular object/behaviour with the purpose of changing the behaviour An evidence based persuasive message that provides information relating to negative consequences of a particular object/behaviour with the purpose of changing the behaviour

17. Emotive persuasion How does it work? Emotion activates arousal Motivated to accept information to reduce state arousal An evidence based persuasive message that provides information relating to negative consequences of a particular object/behaviour with the purpose of changing the behaviour An evidence based persuasive message that provides information relating to negative consequences of a particular object/behaviour with the purpose of changing the behaviour

18. Use of fear appeals Commonly used in most health education advertising � focus on: Vivid language Personalistic language Gory pictures Emotive scenes Vivid language E.g. �thick purulent, choking sensations welled into the tracheotomy wound� Personalistic language E.g. �smokers like you�� Gory pictures E.g. photos of crash victims Emotive scenes Parents injecting themselves, with small child present SHOW OHP OF CIGARETTEVivid language E.g. �thick purulent, choking sensations welled into the tracheotomy wound� Personalistic language E.g. �smokers like you�� Gory pictures E.g. photos of crash victims Emotive scenes Parents injecting themselves, with small child present SHOW OHP OF CIGARETTE

19. Three components of fear appeals Fear Threat Efficacy

20. 1. Fear Negatively valenced emotion accompanied by high levels of arousal A motivational state that protects against danger (Cannon, 1915) Elicited by a threat that is perceived to be significant and personally relevant (Easterling & Leventhal, 1989)

21. 2. Threat An external stimulus variable Real If person holds cognition that threat is present then that person is perceiving a real threat Role of perceived severity Belief that threat is severe Belief of chances of experiencing the threat

22. 3. Efficacy Two types of efficacy Response efficacy How effective is the information to stop risk Self efficacy How capable is self for doing it

23. Outcome variables Two types of outcome variables in fear appeal research: Message acceptance Measurement of attitude, intention, or behaviour Defensive avoidance Denial or minimization of the threat There are two types of outcome variables when viewing fear appeal research: Message acceptance = defined as attitude, intention or behaviour change (Fisbein & Azjen stuff) Defensive avoidance= defined as motivated resistance to the message, such as denial or minimization of the threat Indivs may defensively avoid a message by being inattentive to the communication or suppress any thoughts over a long period of timeThere are two types of outcome variables when viewing fear appeal research: Message acceptance = defined as attitude, intention or behaviour change (Fisbein & Azjen stuff) Defensive avoidance= defined as motivated resistance to the message, such as denial or minimization of the threat Indivs may defensively avoid a message by being inattentive to the communication or suppress any thoughts over a long period of time

24. Types of theoretical approaches � models of attitude change Drive models (Janis & Hovland, 1953) The parallel process model (Leventhal, 1970) Expectancy values theories Protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1983) Subjective expected utility theory (Sutton, 1982) Protection Motivation theory Subjective Expected Utility Theory The decision to accept or reject fear appeal�s recommendations are a function of a) The perceived utility of the threat b) the subjective probability that the threat will occur if don�t change c) the subjective probability that the threat will occur even if make the recommended changes Assumption of the model: that will choose the alternative that has the highest subjective expected utility (highest rewards), or the lowest probability that the threat will occur. VERY SIMILAR TO PROTECTION MOTIVATION THEORY Put up ohp of protection motivation theory (Rogers paper) Protection Motivation theory Subjective Expected Utility Theory The decision to accept or reject fear appeal�s recommendations are a function of a) The perceived utility of the threat b) the subjective probability that the threat will occur if don�t change c) the subjective probability that the threat will occur even if make the recommended changes Assumption of the model: that will choose the alternative that has the highest subjective expected utility (highest rewards), or the lowest probability that the threat will occur. VERY SIMILAR TO PROTECTION MOTIVATION THEORY Put up ohp of protection motivation theory (Rogers paper)

25. Drive models Some fear arousal need to elicit a motivational drive state � but too much is maladaptive Fear as a drive because it produces the LEARNING of new responses Unpleasant tension caused by fear arousal which motivates individuals to get rid of their fear (Largely rejected due to lack of evidence) Fear can be aroused without attitude change (Rogers, 1983) DRIVE MODELS PROBLEM � early research unclear if change is due to experience of arousal, or reduction of aroused state or perception of fearful state and� Subsequent research showed cognitive appraisal of arousal changes attitudes � back to beliefs (REMEMBER- CHANGING ONE OR TWO BELIEFS DOESN�T NEC CHANGE ATTITUDES�) New research replaced earlier drive models� DRIVE MODELS PROBLEM � early research unclear if change is due to experience of arousal, or reduction of aroused state or perception of fearful state and� Subsequent research showed cognitive appraisal of arousal changes attitudes � back to beliefs (REMEMBER- CHANGING ONE OR TWO BELIEFS DOESN�T NEC CHANGE ATTITUDES�) New research replaced earlier drive models�

26. The parallel process model The two processes are: Cognitive attempts to control the DANGER Leads to ADAPTIVE behaviour Emotional attempts to control the FEAR Parallel Response Model Based on Hovlands drive model, but focus on cognitive not emotional processes Either one (or both) of these processes may kick in � but most motivating for behavioural change is danger control Control the danger (adaptive) Control the fear (maladaptive) Either one (or both) of these processes may kick in � but most motivating for behavioural change is danger control Parallel Response Model Based on Hovlands drive model, but focus on cognitive not emotional processes Either one (or both) of these processes may kick in � but most motivating for behavioural change is danger control Control the danger (adaptive) Control the fear (maladaptive) Either one (or both) of these processes may kick in � but most motivating for behavioural change is danger control

27. Protection motivation theory Function of 4 major beliefs That the danger is probable That the danger is serious The recommendations will be effective That they can competently carry out the recommendations Attitude change isn�t a result of fear, but is a function of how much protective motivation has been triggered as a result of cognitive appraisal. Protection motivation theory is best measured by behavioural intention NOTE STRONG SIMILARITY TO THEORY OF PLANNED Behaviour's BEHAVIOURAL CONTROL But the model is not rational! Individuals may feel incapable of protecting themselves (poor coping response) They may think they can�t perform the coping responseAttitude change isn�t a result of fear, but is a function of how much protective motivation has been triggered as a result of cognitive appraisal. Protection motivation theory is best measured by behavioural intention NOTE STRONG SIMILARITY TO THEORY OF PLANNED Behaviour's BEHAVIOURAL CONTROL But the model is not rational! Individuals may feel incapable of protecting themselves (poor coping response) They may think they can�t perform the coping response

28. Advertising and fear appeals Advertisers remind us that life is full of potential anxieties and dangers Stress sells products Anxiety provides compelling reason to buy product Examples - Antibacterial cleaning stuffExamples - Antibacterial cleaning stuff

29. Marketing strategy Advertisers don�t create the fear, it has to be based on some kind of reality Address the problem Provide the solution

30. Vivid imagery Vivid imagery makes evidence more persuasive (Gonzales et al, 1988). Salesmen trained to present information relating to heating lost through holes in walls in graphic and vivid terms increased sales from 15% to 61%. BUT: Under certain conditions attention grabbing vivid imagery lessens the effectiveness of message content (Frey & Eagly, 1993). May be distracted by the vivid imagery and ignore the message content � might be motivated to stop listening BECAUSE of their fear! Too much stress Step 1: Target anxiety through consumer survey Step 2: Decide how much stress to apply Example of light stress: Life assurance sales pitch �Don�t you want to see your children grow old?� message is light � invokes happy memories Message still suggests going to die, so need to prepare for that eventuality Message wouldn�t work if presented a coffin and said �This will be you in two years�. May be distracted by the vivid imagery and ignore the message content � might be motivated to stop listening BECAUSE of their fear! Too much stress Step 1: Target anxiety through consumer survey Step 2: Decide how much stress to apply Example of light stress: Life assurance sales pitch �Don�t you want to see your children grow old?� message is light � invokes happy memories Message still suggests going to die, so need to prepare for that eventuality Message wouldn�t work if presented a coffin and said �This will be you in two years�.

31. How are the advertisers tying to influence you to buy these two products?How are the advertisers tying to influence you to buy these two products?

39. Minimal appeal (Janis & Feschbach, 1954) Strong appeals invoke too much tension Minimal appeal is most effective in behavioural change Minimal appeals invoke highest level of conformity to the message When people feel threat too high, or can�t do anything (no change) Need to counterbalance threat with knowledge that can do something about it. Alternatively, many appeals are for behavioural change � take medication, drive carefully and the appeal may be arousing at the time BUT THE BEHAVIOUR MAY OCCUR SOME TIME LATER � The arousal will have dissipated by then. Threats requiring immediate action work best when arousal is mobilisedAlternatively, many appeals are for behavioural change � take medication, drive carefully and the appeal may be arousing at the time BUT THE BEHAVIOUR MAY OCCUR SOME TIME LATER � The arousal will have dissipated by then. Threats requiring immediate action work best when arousal is mobilised

40. Summary Message learning approach useful for understanding when and how persuasion occurs (passive view of persuasion) Cognitive response approach useful for why people change their attitudes (people as active participants in change process)

41. Conclusions Attitude change involves changing beliefs Traditional fear appeals increase levels of physiological arousal Cognitive appraisal of threat produces arousal which mobilises motivatation to protect oneself from the threat Na�ve to suggest that can change people�s attitudes by frightening them

42. Key reading Rogers (1983) Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation Hewstone & Stroebe (2001) Chapter 16: Behaviour and health Franzoi (2000) Chapter 6: Persuasion

43. What next�.? Lecture 10: Cognitive dissonance theory Essential reading: Beavois & Joule (1996) A radical dissonance theory. Chapter 7: Misattribution paradigm and rationalisation (pp. 123 � 154) Cooper & Fazio (1984) A new look at dissonance theory (pp. 230 � 266) Franzio (2000) Chapter 5: Attitudes (pp. 170-181)