By: Kathleen Merchant March 25, 2013

1. Educational Governance and Administration EDU 548Chapter XIII“The State Level of Policy Making” By: Kathleen Merchant March 25, 2013

2. Introduction • When the Constitution was written in the 1780’s no reference was made to education, neither did the earliest state constitution. • The small amount of schooling that was available was left up to the churches and private academies, which was supported by those families who wanted their children to learn basic reading and mathematics. • For the most part education was not governed by law

3. This all Changed • In the 1830’s and 1840’s, the Common School Movement wanted education reform. • Elementary education mandatory for all free children(boys and girls). • Its leaders worked with state government to establish the policy to make it happen • When the states set up common school systems they were exercising one of the powers reserved to states based on the 10th Amendment within the United States Constitution • Although this was the case for more than one hundred years the states did almost nothing to support public education other than issue less definitive goals and little financial backing

4. Education Today • Presently state governments are assertively involved in the following ways; setting goals for schools, shaping curriculum and evaluating student learning and progress. To accomplish this task: • Each school employs a bureaucracy, which is closely linked to local school districts, who in turn are expected to report on a regular basis to the state on what is happening • This growth of state power as it relates to public education has made it crucial that education administrators comprehend what occurs at the state level of government and educational policymaking

5. Overview of State Education Governance Legal Framework • As mentioned before the U.S. Constitution does not contain the word education, not to mention any provisions for the establishment of public schools or any other school. • On the other hand, it does include in the Bill of Rights, the Tenth Amendment , which gives states and the people any authority not granted to the federal government under the federal constitution • The right to set up and regulate schools is one of the so called reserved powers, given to the fifty state governments • State governments has adopted a state constitution that grants it the powers to establish and regulate schools • As a result, Portion of portion of the state constitution regarding education statues regarding education passed by state legislation and court decisions handed down in the state court systems form the legal bases for the governance of education by each state.

6. The Scope and State Authority • The state’s authority over education within its borders is broad. • This authority can extend beyond the K-12 education. (private education, home schooling and higher education) • This implies that the state government can exercise the following: • Set up and abolish local schools, or simply do without local school districts altogether; • License teachers and administrators, and also rescind those licenses ; • Establish requirements for school facilities and enforce them; • Adopt and implement statewide curricula and textbooks ; and • Set up statewide testing programs, to determine if students’ are learning academic content. • Issue rewards and sanctions • Even though states have authority over education there are still some limitations as it relates to the constitution. Please refer to the excerpt on pg. 261

7. Major Political Actors at the State Level • Education governance at the state level is more complex than that of local education governance. • It includes a many elected and appointed officials who play roles in the state government, such as; the governor, the legislature and the judges, it also includes special governance systems(these systems only have governance over education). • In all states except Wisconsin and Minnesota the special governance system includes three components which are; a state board of education (SBE), a chief state school officer(CSSO), who normally holds titles such as; Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Superintendent, or Commissioner of Education and state education agency (SEA)

8. What task do the three components of the government complete? • SEA is a large bureaucracy (administrators) headed by the CSSO and the employees conduct these tasks; budget analysis and proposals, writing rules and regulations. • The majority of school administrators have direct contact with SEA (varying times). • Attendance at workshops sponsored by SEA • Telephonic contacts to gather advice on various technical issues. Please note: There also other members who are active in the official Governance structure. (e.g. special interest groups usually the two most Influential groups are; teachers unions and the business lobby).

9. Major Governmental Political Players at the State Policy Individuals • Governor • Chief state school officer • Chairs of education committees in legislature Groups • Legislature • Education committees in legislature • Legislative staff • State board of education • State education agency • State court system Major Nongovernmental political players at the State Level • Teachers’ unions • Public employees’ unions • Business groups • Religious groups • Racial and ethnic groups • State-based foundations • State-based think tanks

10. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking The Growth of State Power • The expansion of state influence on schooling proceeded at an uneven speed. • The goal of providing free public education for all children was introduced by Horace Mann in the 1840’s(Mississippi-1918) last state to set up. • At that time state governments allowed local districts to make almost all education policy decisions, however; they did not provide sufficient financial support. • Throughout the twentieth century, states powers over education amplified Note: Today the state level of school governance is the most important of the three levels.

11. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking A Shift In Values • The shift in values that began in the nineteenth century which intensified in the twentieth century was one of the reasons attributed to the growth of state power • The public school system as locally constituted gave special attention to the local community and its values • The people of that era greatly valued freedom(to make decisions about schools) they did not accept the idea that one uniform law should govern all varieties of schooling within a single state • For many decades school districts could determine how many school days was good enough

12. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking A Shift In Values cont. • Districts should be free to make their own choices • Professional educators believed that standardizing instruction and making resources equally available so that all children would have the opportunity to receive an adequate education • In other words, they valued quality and equity more than freedom • This meant that those who choose freedom over equity • Excess local control, abundant resources and well-qualified personnel, while others stay without.

13. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Increased State Capacity • One more factor in the shift of power over education to states was the increased capacity of state governments • Before this time states governments were very weak(100 years after the establishment of common schools in the 1830’s and 1840’s) • State governments met every other year • Governors were not interested in education • Nominal bureaucracy • Insufficient staff to issue reports • Whenever reports were received they were filed away

14. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Increased State Capacity • Subsequent to World War II • State governments increased and so did their capacity • Legislators met every year • Legislative staff increased • Governors became more cognizant of public education • States provided more educational funding This implied that state governments were at last able to have an active involvement in school policy

15. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Timeline for Monies (Federal Dollars) • 1920’s -Vocational education • 1930’s and 1940’s -School lunch program • 1958-National Defense Education Act(NDE)-soviet launching of unmanned satellite(grants to train teachers, improved instruction (math, science and foreign languages) • 1965-Elementary and Secondary Education Act(ESEA)-substantial amount of monies, targeting remedial education • 1983-Federal law seeking to reform schools by evaluating students learning (hiring of experts(testing and curriculum) • 2001-No Child Left Behind Act(NCLB)-imposed testing programs and reporting for states that received federal dollars To carry out these innovative responsibilities state governments had to increase staff to oversee and evaluate programs

16. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Changes in State Taxes • Next cause of state level growth was the changes in tax organization • Latter part of the twentieth century states adopted new types of taxes or increased the revenues coming from taxes such as; sales taxes, personal and corporate income taxes, lottery was also amongst the taxes • As a result of this more monies was made available to expend on schools • Because of this the amount of schools funding that was being contributed to them funds began to grow • By the middle of the 1980’s the average state was giving about half of the funding for its schools As a result of the above schools were expected to be more accountable

17. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Changes in State Taxes cont. • Pressures from above and below caused state governments to expand • Innermost problem was schools inability to respond to the immense amount of criticism(system shock) Some of those criticisms were; • Failure of student learning • Breathtaking media coverage of school violence • Continuous disputes of local stakeholders • Citizens dissatisfaction with paying higher taxes to support schools • More state involvement in education ultimately leading to the growth of state education bureaucracy

18. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking State Political Cultures • Even though on paper the governance of the fifty states may look similar, it would be serious mistake to assume that politics plays out the same in all of them • Major cause for this variation is the differences in political cultures • Elazar defined political culture as “a regular way of thinking and acting about politics and public policy” (as cited in Fowler, Kelleher, McCarthy & Sergiovanni 2009, p. 266). He also identified three major political cultures which are; traditionalistic, moralistic and individualistic political cultures

19. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking State Political Cultures Traditionalistic-found mostly in the South and also states that were settled by persons from the South (Oklahoma & Arizona)elite group, strong social and family ties Moralistic-found mostly in New England which is rooted in Puritan traditions of the colonial prevalent (Maine, Vermont, Wisconsin and Minnesota) Individualistic –started in the Middle Atlantic States (New York and Pennsylvania) was widespread by individuals who moved

20. Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Cultural Influences on Education Policy • In their 1989 study, Marshall, Mitchell and Wirt conducted an investigation on the impact of political culture on education policies in states. • Findings were 24 of 33 programs identified conformed to the expected cultural types. • Variations among state education systems can also be contributed to political culture (e.g. Massachusetts compulsory attendance law/southern state Mississippi did so 66 year after and Illinois, efficiency) Please note subsequent to the release of a Nation of Risk – traditionalistic southern states led the nation in the implementation of school reform. According to the text in the 1980’s 7 out of the 8 states adopting the majority of reforms were located in the confederacy.

21. The Policymaking Process at the State Level • State policies originate in statuary laws passed by the legislature • SEA develops rules an regulations to go with them • Erupts because of dissatisfaction with a services maladminsitered,misadministered or underadmininisterd(corruption, poorly or not at all) • Public dissatisfaction often leading to policy being on governors agenda • Notice the problem, which usually occur following a crisis • Its implementation means that SEA/bureaucracies must rearrange its resources to cover it.

22. The Policymaking Process at the State Level The Cognitive World of State Legislators • Beliefs and attitudes which is common among lawmakers shape their behaviors and attitudes • Do not hear every policy proposal • Marshall mentioned this “legislators attitudes the assumptive words of policymakers, they form screens that filter the flow of policy demands” (as cited in Fowler, Kelleher, McCarthy & Sergiovanni 2009, p. 268). According to the text legislators paid more attention to certain individuals and groups than it did to others • If the legislature had certain expectations of certain individuals and groups once they kept up with the legislators expectations they would hear them

23. The Policymaking Process at the State Level Issue Definition • First step in the policymaking process(this can take years) • Although individuals who reside in the communities may see that there is a problem(legislators may hesitate to agree/assumptive moods) • On occasion an issue may suddenly surface, attracting public attention, which garners great support(crisis/emergency) • This usually initiates the demands from major interest groups (long overdue capital investment to education) • Mass media also contributes to issue definition • In democratic theory, groups are equally important, however; in issue definition some are more equal in comparison to others • In the event of a crisis/emergency the definition of an issue probably would take weeks as opposed to years. • Issue definition is controlled by think tanks, foundations, mass media and a handful of exceedingly powerful interest groups

24. The Policymaking Process at the State LevelSetting the Policy Agenda • Specific issues that lawmakers are willing to deal with • More issues get identified not all of them make it on the agenda • Media coverage(news stories) signals public discontent with some portion of schooling • Pressure to lawmakers from special interest groups • Governor may have a particular interest that relates to education • Legislative chair on education • National lobbies “policy networks” provide the impetus • Interest from politicians to be alignment with national issues

25. The Policymaking Process at the State LevelFormal Adoption of a Policy • Policy must be put into words and adopted by an official person or governmental body • How does this happen? • Governor can issue and executive order • Court opinion • SEA can issue a directive Passage of a statue, or law, is done by the legislature which is the most ordinary way that policies get put into words and is officially adopted Figure 13.3 (pg. 271) summarizes the process

26. The Policymaking Process at the State LevelPolicy Implementation • Another stage in policy process moves from formal adoption to Execution • Administrators(state& local) will have to locate the resources and personnel to attain the policy goals • CSSO and SEA’s play a pivotal role in policy implementation • Development of rules & regulations(make laws clear) • Prepare directives and provide professional development seminars • Monitor local education agencies (site visits and written reports) • One of the major duties of administrators is implementation of policies Policy implementation can be challenging and difficult task

27. The Policymaking Process at the State LevelPolicy Evaluation • Last stage in the process • Not always evaluated to determine their effectiveness • An example noted in the text is that of school choice programs • For the most part policies are evaluated, SEA’s can perform this through its utilization its research staff or contracting with universities to conduct studies. • Ideally, SEA and lawmakers utilize evaluations to change policies or terminate them altogether if they are not successful at achieving the desired goal(s).

28. In Closing • For the most part educational governance systems and policymaking process in all states look a lot like each other. However, the manner in which politics plays out in the sates varies. This can be attributed to the difference that exist in each states political culture. • All in all, the outcome relies heavily on the manner in which education is recognized and supported by policy makers.