Chapter 11

1. Chapter 11 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood

2. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

3. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

4. The Self • The Development of Self-Understanding • Self-Esteem and Self-Concept • Industry Versus Inferiority Black Hawk College Chapter 11

5. The Development of Self-Understanding • Self-understanding shifts from defining oneself through external characteristics to defining oneself through internal characteristics. • Elementary school children are more likely to define themselves in terms of social characteristics. • Self-understanding now includes increasing reference to social comparison—what they can do in comparison with others. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

6. Self-Esteem and Self-Concept • What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept? • Research on Self-Esteem • Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem Black Hawk College Chapter 11

7. What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept? • Self-esteem - global evaluations of the self • Also referred to as self-worth or self-image • Self-concept - domain-specific evaluations of the self • Children can make evaluations about themselves academically, athletically, based on their appearance, etc. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

8. Research on Self-Esteem • Self-esteem found to be stable at least across a month or so of time. • Self-esteem can change, especially in response to transitions in life. • Elementary school children engage in social comparison, which can lower their self-esteem. • Low-self esteem is related to depression. • Much research is correlational not experimental. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

9. Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem • Identification of the causes of low self-esteem and the domains of competence important to the self • Emotional support and social approval • Achievement • Coping Black Hawk College Chapter 11

10. Industry Versus Inferiority • In Erikson’s fourth stage, industry refers to the fact that children become interested in how things are made and how they work. • When encouraged in their efforts to make, build, and work, children’s sense of industry increases. • Parents who see their children’s efforts as “making mischief” or “making a mess” encourage children’s development of a sense of inferiority. • School plays a very important role in this stage. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

11. Emotional Development • Developmental Changes • Emotional Intelligence Black Hawk College Chapter 11

12. Developmental Changes • Increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame • Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation • Increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions • Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions • Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings Black Hawk College Chapter 11

13. Emotional Intelligence • The concept of emotional intelligence initially was proposed as a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action. • Goleman’s view of emotional intelligence involves: • Developing Emotional Self-Awareness • Managing Emotions • Reading Emotions • Handling Relationships Black Hawk College Chapter 11

14. Moral Development • Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development • Kohlberg’s Critics • Prosocial Behavior and Altruism Black Hawk College Chapter 11

15. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Lawrence Kohlberg stressed that moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning and unfolds in stages. • He arrived at his view after 20 years of using a unique interview with children in which they are presented with a series of stories in which characters face moral dilemmas. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

16. Internalization • A key concept in understanding is internalization. • It is the developmental change from behavior that is externally controlled to behavior that is controlled by internal standards and principles. • As children and adolescents develop, their moral thoughts become more internalized. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

17. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development • Level 1: Preconventional Level • Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality • Stage 2: Individualism, Purpose, and Exchange • Level 2: Conventional Level • Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity • Stage 4: Social System Morality • Level 3: Postconventional Level • Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Black Hawk College Chapter 11

18. Kohlberg’s Critics • Moral Thought and Moral Behavior • Culture and Moral Development • Family Processes and Moral Development • Gender and the Care Perspective Black Hawk College Chapter 11

19. Moral Thought and Moral Behavior • Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough emphasis on moral behavior. • Moral reasons can sometimes be a shelter for immoral behavior. • Cheaters and thieves may know what is right yet still do what is wrong. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

20. Culture and Moral Development • Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for being culturally biased. • Moral reasoning is more culture-specific than Kohlberg envisioned. • His scoring system does not recognize higher-level moral reasoning in certain cultural groups. • His system would not score values related to: • Communal equity and collective happiness in Israel. • The unity and sacredness of all life forms in India. • The relation of the individual to the community in New Guinea. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

21. Family Processes and Moral Development • Kohlberg claimed family processes are essentially unimportant in children’s moral development, and that peers are more likely to be an influence. • Many developmentalists believe that Kohlberg underestimated the contribution of family relationships to moral development. • They emphasize that inductive discipline positively influences moral development. • Parents’ moral values are also believed to influence children’s developing moral thoughts. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

22. Gender and the Care Perspective • Kohlberg’s theory is a justice perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual; individuals stand alone and independently make moral decisions. • The care perspective is a moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

23. Gender and the Care Perspective (con’t) • Carol Gilligan believed Kohlberg greatly under-played the care perspective in moral development, due to being male, using primarily males for his research, and basing his theory on male responses. • Gilligan’s research found that girls consistently interpret moral dilemmas in terms of human relationships. • Other research has found that the gender differences in moral reasoning are not absolute. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

24. Prosocial Behavior and Altruism • Altruism - an unselfish interest in helping someone else; has its beginnings in sharing. • Equality - everyone is treated the same; one of the first principles of morality used by elementary school children. • Merit - giving extra rewards for hard work, a talented performance, or other laudatory acts. • Benevolence - giving special consideration to individuals in a disadvantaged condition. • Mid to late elementary children apply merit and benevolence have an understanding of equity. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

25. Gender • Gender Stereotypes • Gender Similarities and Differences • Gender-Role Classification • Gender in Context Black Hawk College Chapter 11

26. Gender Stereotypes • Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males. • Refer to an image of what the typical member of a particular social category is like. • Males are widely believed to be dominant, independent, aggressive, achievement-oriented, and enduring. • Females are widely believed to be nurturant, affiliative, less esteemed, and more helpful. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

27. Gender Similarities and Differences • Physical Similarities and Differences • Cognitive Similarities and Differences • Socioemotional Similarities and Differences • Gender Controversy Black Hawk College Chapter 11

28. Physical Similarities and Differences • Females have a longer life expectancy. • Females are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders. • Males have twice the risk of coronary disease. • Females produce more “good” cholesterol. • Women have about twice the body fat of men. • Fat is concentrated around breasts and hips in women, the abdomen in men. • On average, males grow to be 10% taller. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

29. Cognitive Similarities and Differences • Controversy exists as to true cognitive differences between males and females. • Some studies have shown that males perform better on math and visuospatial tasks, while females have better language skills. • Overall, girls are found to be far superior students, while boys do slightly better at math and science. • Girls are taking similar math and science courses in high school and use computers in a variety of ways, however, they are still far less likely to go into careers in science and technology. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

30. Socioemotional Similarities and Differences • One of the most consistent gender differences is that boys are more aggressive than girls. • Boys are more active than girls. • Males usually show less self-regulation than females. • Low self-regulation has been found to be linked with greater aggression, the teasing of others, overreaction to frustration, low cooperation, and inability to delay gratification. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

31. Gender Controversy • Much controversy exists about similarities and differences between males and females. • Alice Eagly argues that the belief that gender differences are small or nonexistent is rooted in a feminist commitment to gender similarity and is seen as a route to political equality. • Many feminists fear that gender differences will be interpreted as deficiencies on the part of females, and will be seen as biologically based. • The subsequent consequence would be the revival of traditional stereotypes that females are innately inferior to males. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

32. Gender-Role Classification • What Is Gender-Role Classification? • Androgyny and Education • Gender-Role Transcendence Black Hawk College Chapter 11

33. What Is Gender-Role Classification? • In the past, a well-adjusted boy was supposed to be independent, aggressive, and powerful. • A well-adjusted girl was supposed to be dependent, nurturant, and uninterested in power. • Society considered masculine characteristics healthy and good, feminine characteristics undesirable. • The concept of androgyny was developed in the 1970s in response to dissatisfaction by both males and females with the burdens imposed by their roles. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

34. Androgyny • Refers to the presence of desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person. • The Bem Sex-Role Inventory is used to assess androgyny. • Sandra Bem argues that androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy than their masculine or feminine counterparts. • To some degree, which gender-role classification is best depends on the context involved. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

35. Androgyny and Education • In general, it is easier to teach androgyny to girls than to boys, and easier before middle school. • Advocates of androgyny programs believe that traditional sex-typing is harmful for all students and especially has prevented many girls from experiencing equal opportunity. • Detractors argue that androgynous educational programs are too value-laden and ignore the diversity of gender roles in our society. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

36. Gender-Role Transcendence • Gender-role transcendence is the view that when an individual’s competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on a personal basis, rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny. • We should think of ourselves as people; not as masculine, feminine, or androgynous. • Parents should rear their children to be competent individuals. • This attitude helps to avoid stereotyping. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

37. Gender in Context • Gender-role classification involves a personality-traitlike categorization. • It may be helpful to think of personality in terms of person-situation interaction, rather than personality traits alone. • Different gender roles might be more appropriate, depending on the context or setting involved. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

38. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

39. Parent-Child Issues • The introduction of chores and payment • Helping children learn to entertain themselves • Monitoring children’s lives outside the family in school and peer settings • Discipline is easier than during early childhood and often easier than in adolescence • Coregulation of control • Life changes for parents Black Hawk College Chapter 11

40. Societal Changes in Families • Stepfamilies • Latchkey Children Black Hawk College Chapter 11

41. Stepfamilies • These children have more adjustment problems. • Problems mimic those of children of divorce: • academic problems • externalizing and internalizing problems • lower self-esteem • early sexual activity • delinquency • There is an increase in adjustment problems of children in newly remarried families. • Restabilization may take up to 5 years longer than in divorced families. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

42. Boundary Ambiguity • The uncertainty in stepfamilies about who is in or out of the family and who is performing or responsible for certain tasks in the family system. • In early remarriage, stepfathers tend to behave like polite strangers to win over stepchildren. • In longer established stepfamilies, a distant, disengaged parenting style predominates for stepfathers, although conflict can remain high. • Stepmothers have a more difficult time integrating themselves into stepfamilies. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

43. Latchkey Children • These children typically do not see their parents from the time they leave for school in the morning until about 6 or 7 P.M. • Latchkey children are largely unsupervised for 2 to 4 hours a day during the week. • During the summer they may be unsupervised for entire days, 5 days a week. • The experiences of latchkey children vary enormously. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

44. Findings on Latchkey Children • Some grow up too fast, due to responsibilities. • Without limits and parental supervision, many more easily find their way into trouble, possibly stealing, vandalizing, or abusing a sibling. • In a 1987 national poll, teachers rated the latchkey children phenomenon the number one reason that children have problems in schools. • Parental monitoring and authoritative parenting help the child cope more effectively with latchkey experiences, especially in resisting peer pressure. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

45. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

46. Peer Statuses • Popular children - frequently nominated as a best friend, rarely disliked by peers. • Neglected children - infrequently nominated as a best friend, not disliked by peers. • Rejected children - infrequently nominated as a best friend, actively disliked by peers. • Controversial children - frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

47. Rejected Children • Often have more serious adjustment problems later in life than do neglected children. • The key factor in predicting whether rejected children would engage in delinquent behavior or drop out of school during adolescence was aggression toward peers in elementary school. • Not all are aggressive; 10-20% are shy. • The goal of training programs for rejected children is to help them listen to peers, instead of trying to dominate peer interactions. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

48. Bullying • Characteristics of Victims • Effects of Bullying Black Hawk College Chapter 11

49. Characteristics of Victims • Victims have parents who are intrusive and demanding but low in responsiveness with their children. • Boys who have intensely close relationships with their parents are victimized more. • This has been speculated to indicate that overly close and emotionally intense relationships between parents and sons might foster self-doubts and worries that are perceived as weaknesses. • Children who experience internalizing problems, physical weakness, and peer rejection tend to bevictimized over time. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

50. Effects of Bullying • Victims of bullies can suffer both short- term and long-term effects. • Short-term they can become depressed, lose interest in schoolwork, or avoid going to school. • The effects of bullying can persist into adulthood. • Male victims bullied in childhood reported more depression and lower self-esteem in their twenties. • Boys who were bullies in middle school were much more likely to to have a criminal conviction in their twenties. Black Hawk College Chapter 11