Neo-Classical Theories of Crime and Victimization

1. Neo-Classical Theories of Crime and Victimization Graduate Criminology lecture: open access

2. The Nature of Victimization • Since 1993 the number of victimizations are declining • NCVS Data • Patterns of victimization are stable • Victimization is not random • Becoming a crime victim has a lot to do with personal and ecological factors • How is this useful? • Researchers can make judgments about the nature of victimization • Efforts can be made to reduce the victimization rate

3. Environmental Criminology • Examines the location of a specific crime and the context in which it occurred in order to understand and explain crime patterns. • Where and when did the crime occur? • What are the physical and social characteristics of the crime site? • What movements bring offender and target together at the crime site?

4. Rational Choice PerspectiveClark & Cornish Rational Choice perspective developed by Ronald Clarke and Derek Cornish and based on two theoretical approaches • Based on utilitarianism, assumes that people make decisions with the goal of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. • Based on traditional economic choice theory, which argues that people will evaluate the options and choose what they believe will satisfy their needs.

5. Rational choice implies a limited sense of rationality, that is, an offender does not know all the details of a situation; rather he or she relies on cues in the environment or characteristics of targets • Most crime is ordinary and committed by reasoning individuals who decide that the chances of getting caught are low and the possibilities for a relatively good pay off is high.

6. A variety of factors or characteristics come into play when an offender decides to commit a crime. These factors are called “choice structuring-properties” • Characteristics fall into two distinct sets: those of the offender and those of the offence.

7. Decisionto commit burglary Rejected(Middle Class Area)Unfamiliar; distantneighborhood watchno public transport Selected(Middle Class Area)Easily accessiblefew police patrolslow security housinglarger gardens Not Burgled HomeNosy neighbors,burglar alarmnor rear access,visible from streetwindow locks; dog Burgled Homeno one at home: Especially affluent,detached, patio doorsbushes and other covercorner site

8. Routine-Activity ApproachCohen & Felson • A crime can occur only if there is someone who intends to commit a crime (likely offender). • Something or someone to be victimized (a suitable target). • No other person present to prevent or observe the crime (the absence of a capable guardian). • No person to control the activities of the offender (personal handler).

9. Components of a Criminal Event

10. Key Assumptions • Routine patterns of work, play, and leisure time affect the convergence in time and place of motivated offenders who are not handled, suitable targets, and the absence of guardians • If one component is missing, crime is not likely to be committed.

11. Routine-Activity Approach • Certain technological changes and alterations in the workforce create new crime opportunities • Increase in female participation in the labor force • Out-of-town travel, automobile usage, and technological advances that account for higher risks of predatory victimization.

12. Theories of VictimizationLifestyle Theories Proposition: • The probability of suffering a personal victimization is directly related to the amount of time that a person spends in public places. • The probability of being in public places varies as a function of lifestyle. • Social contacts and interactions occur disproportionately among individuals who share similar lifestyles.

13. Lifestyle Theories Continued • An individual’s chances of personal victimization are dependent upon the extent to which the individual shares demographic characteristics with offenders. • The proportion of time that an individual spends among non-family members varies as a function of lifestyle. • The probability of personal victimization increases as a function of the proportion of the time that an individual spends among non-family members.

14. Lifestyle Theories Continued • Variations in lifestyle are associated with variations in the ability of individuals to isolate themselves from persons with offender characteristics. • Variations in lifestyle are associated with variations in the convenience, the desirability, and visibility of the person as a target for a personal victimization.

15. Burglars and Burglary • Before committing their offenses, burglars take into account • Familiarity with the area, • Fear of recognition • Concern over standing out as somebody who does not belong

16. Burglars and Burglary • Planning – professional burglars plan more than do amateurs • Systematic selection of a home - some burglars examine clues such as burglar alarm, watchdog, mail piled up in mailbox, accumulated newspapers. Closed windows with A/C turned off • Situational Cues – some burglars routinely choose a corner property for it offers avenues of escape, fewer adjoining properties low visibility.

17. Victim-Offender Interaction Marvin Wolfgang • Coined the term victim precipitation to refer to situations where victims initiate the confrontations that lead to their death. • Wolfgang estimated that as many as one quarter to one half of intentional homicides are victim precipitated.

18. Theories of Victimization Continued • Repeat victimization • Hotspots of crime • Geography of crime

19. Repeat victimization • Dispel the myth that crime is uniformly distributed. A small number of people and places account for a large amount of the crimes committed. • Risk of repeat burglary are highest immediately after a previous burglary • Offenders choose targets based on the knowledge they gained in the previous victimization about the risks and rewards of a particular offence.

20. Hot Spots • Studies show that certain types of crime are concentrated in what police refers to as “hot spots” • The researchers surmise that attempts to prevent victimization should be focused not on victims but on the places themselves by making them less vulnerable to crime.

21. Geography of Crime • Researchers have found that more crime occurs around high schools and blocks with bars, liquor stores, the city center and abandoned buildings.

22. The Social Ecology of Victimization • Violent crimes are slightly more likely to occur in a public area during daytime or early evening hours • More serious violent crimes typically occur after 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. • Rape and aggravated assault • Less serious violent crimes more likely occur in the day • Purse snatching and unarmed robberies

23. The risk of murder is highest in disorganized inner-city areas • Rural areas have significantly lower victimization rates than urban areas (half as much) • Schools are also the location of many victimization • Numbers are decreasing

24. The Victim’s Household • In the U.S. certain homes are more vulnerable to crimes • Larger homes (family size) • African American • Renters • Western and urban homes • Rural white homes in the Northeast are least likely to contain crime victims

25. Important Victim Characteristics • Gender • Age • Social status • Marital status • Race and Ethnicity • Repeat victimization

26. Gender • Males are more likely to be the victims of violent crimes (robbery/assault) • Except for rape or sexual assault • Two thirds of women are victimized by someone they know or live with • Half of male victims are attacked by someone they know • With the increase in gender equality, women’s victimization rates are as well • Age • Young people have a much higher victimization rate • Victim risk rapidly diminishes after age 25 • By age 65 chances of being victimized greatly decrease • 1% of violent victimizations • With increases in reports of elder abuse, victimization rates for the elderly will increase • More likely to be victims of crimes such as • Frauds and scams • Purse snatching

27. Social Status • The poorest Americans are the most likely victims of violent and property crime • Regardless of age, gender, and race • The wealthy are more likely the targets of personal theft crimes • Marital Status • Never-married men and women have higher victimization rates than married people • Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization rate • The relationship between marital status and victimization is probably influenced by gender, age, and lifestyle

28. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design • Originated by C. Ray Jeffery • CPTED posits that environments can be altered, often at little expense, to decrease victimization. • Defensible Space by Oscar Newman refers to improved architectural designs, particularly of public housing, in order to provide increased security.

29. Situational Crime Prevention • The phantom crime prevention at Disney World • Situational prevention of auto theft • Convenience stores • Parking facilities • Displacement

30. Top 25 Most Commonly Stolen Vehicles in 2001

31. 1995 Honda Civic 1991 Honda Accord 1989 Toyota Camry 1997 Ford F150 Series 1994 Chevrolet C/K 1500 Pickup1994 Acura Integra2004 Dodge Ram Pickup1994 Nissan Sentra1988 Toyota Pickup2007 Toyota Corolla Source: Intellichoice.com 2008