Introduction to English Syntax Level 1 Course

1. Introduction to English SyntaxLevel 1 Course Ron Kuzar Department of English Language and Literature University of Haifa Chapter 8 Major Sentence Patterns: Extraposition Sentence

2. Two More Word Classes • Before we address the extraposition sentence pattern, we need to define two additional word classes: • The infinitive (Inf), • The gerund (Gd). • Both express abstract notions of the verb, and in many cases they are syntactically interchangeable. • The semantic and conceptual differences between them will not concern us here, only their syntactic behavior.

3. The Infinitive (Inf) • The infinitive is formed by putting to before the bare verb form: to write, to eat, etc. • The infinitive is sensitive to aspect: • Progressive: to be eating, to be writing. • Perfect: to have eaten, to have written. • Perf. Prog.: to have been eating, to have been writing. • And it may be passivized: • to be eaten, to have been written.

4. The Infinitive Phrase (InfP) • The InfP contains a predicate and other components associated with it (complements and adjuncts). It does not contain a subject. • Here are some verbal InfP: • To eat a banana, to be writing a book,to have arrived, to rain. • Here are some copular InfP. Copular InfPs contain the copula or linking verb and the predicateNP, AP, or PP): • To bea woman, to bewell, to beon the roof,to soundhungry, to lookpretty.

5. Terminological Note • Some linguists view the InfP as optionally having a subject, preceded by for: • (For me) to eat bananas. • (For the cat) to be on the roof. • (for it) to rain. • For reasons that cannot be gone into here, we will view this For-phrase in the extraposition pattern as part of the subordinating clause:  – It’s good for him [to go],  – It’s good [for him to go].

6. Terminological Note • Infinitive phrase or infinitive clause? • Linguists who view the InfP as containing an optional subject, tend to call it an infinite (infinitival) clause, because it looks to them more like a full sentence. • Since we do not include the subject in the Inf. construction, we prefer the term phrase, comparing it to a VP, not to the full clause.

7. Some Syntactic Positions of InfP • The InfP may serve as Subj. or Obj.: • To read books makes me happy. • To read books is a good habit. • I hope to read one book every week. • I hope for him to win this game. • It may serve as predicate of a Cop sentence: • My aim is to read one book every week. • To live is to love. • It may serve as an adjunct purpose phrase: • I do it (in order) to please my parents.

8. The Gerund (Gd) • The Gerund (Gd) has the –ing ending: • Going, finding, living, etc. • The gerund is sensitive to perfect aspect: • Havinggone, havingfound, havinglived. • Not having lived there is something I hope to rectify. • The gerund is sensitive to passivization: • Being shot, being written, being found. • Being shot is a quicker way to die than being mauledby a lion.

9. Some Syntactic Positions of GdP • The GdP may serve as Subj., Obj.,Obl., and PP adjunct. • Subject: • Writing letters annoys me. • Direct Object: • I hate writing letters. • Oblique Object: • I usually refrain from writing letters. • PP adjunct: • I could live without writing letters.

10. Terminological Note • Since the InfP and GdP are nominalized and occupy mostly NP positions, they are called nominals. • Another form of nominalization is the packaging of a sentence in a subordinate that-clause. It also often appears in NP positions: • I have found my keys. • I have found that I have water rights on this ditch.

11. Nominals in Valency • The valency of a predicate may specify a nominal as an argument, instead of an NP. NP[person] find NP/That-Clause I found my keys. I found that I had water rights on this ditch. NP[person] want NP/InfP I want soup.I wanted to help them.

12. Extraposition (XP) sentences • Examples: Group One: • It could be greatto see you all in one place. • It is funbeing in the same decade with you. • it is in orderthat we acknowledge their input. • Itleaves me breathlessto think about it. • Examples: Group Two: • Yesterday, itwas reportedthat they have been denied a filming permit in the shopping district. • It is well knownthat citric acid triggers coughing. • It has been rumoredthat she is recording a new album.

13. It is an expletive • The initial element it is an expletive: • It cannot be replaced with this. • *This could be great to see you all in one place. • It cannot be stressed. • *IT could be great to see you all in one place. • It cannot be asked about: • *What could be great to see you all in one place?

14. Caveat • Without the nominal, it must be understood as a pronoun referring back to a real thing. • It can be replaced with this. • Lets go to the pool. It/this could be great. • It can be stressed. • IT could be great. • It can be asked about: • What could be great?

15. The formula of the XP sentence Pattern • Based on the example above, the formula has the following form (not final; to be updated) • Note: V and Cop are represented separately: It (M) V NominalIt (M) Cop N/A/P Nominal • The specific valency of each predicate determines which nominal is to be used.

16. The Evaluative Sub-Pattern • In the evaluative sub-pattern, the predicate is evaluative, and the nominal represents the situation evaluated: It (M) V NominalIt may pay to go.It (M) Cop N/A/P NominalIt would be good to go. Evaluative Evaluatedpredicatesituation

17. Terminological Note • Evaluative means modal. However, modal is reserved in English for a verbal word class, so using the term separately for a class and a function might be confusing. • Modality/evaluation has to do with the assessment of a situation as possible, necessary, advisable, preferable, cost-incurring, and some other similar assessment: • It is possible/necessary/advisable/preferable to do this. • It takes an hour/costs a dollar to do this.

18. The Quotative Sub-Pattern • In the quotative sub-pattern, the predicate is quotative, and the nominal represents the report quoted: It (M) V NominalIt has been decided to go.It (M) Cop N/A/P NominalIt has been in the stars that we go. QuotativeQuotedpredicate report

19. Terminological Note • The predicate may be active or passive: • It follows that… • It has been announced that… • In either case, the quotation is anonymous in this pattern by definition (though the source can be restored in an adjunct by-phrase). • It has been announced by the government that… • This is, of course, not the case with active V sentences, such as: • The Secretary of State announced that…

20. One or Two Meaningsin the XP Pattern? • The two sub-patterns have the same form. • Supposedly, they have two distinct meanings. • But there are some borderline cases: • It is well established that artichokes contain iron. • Is this the speaker's evaluation of the situation or the speaker's quotation of the report? • Could we, perhaps, include quotation in evaluation? • Isn’t there always a measure of estrangement in anonymous quotation?

21. Adding another Component • Let us have a look at the following sentences: • Evaluative: • It is legal for her to raise my rent. • It is hard on him to change schools every year. • It annoys them that I refuse to reveal my age. • Quotative: • It has been explained to the patient that we will only disclose relevant information. • It was suggested to me to use the IP address of the mail server. • it suddenly dawned on me that the summer was over.

22. The Affectee • The added component is the entity affected by the evaluation or the quotation. • Typically it is human (as in the examples above). • Exceptions do exist: • It is best for the soup to be strained through a fine mesh strainer. • We call it the affectee.

23. Updated Formula for XP • With the affectee added, the formula of the XP sentence pattern is as follows: It (M) [VPV NP/PP] NominalIt has been suggested to me to go.It (M) Cop [NP/AP/PP N/A/P PP] NominalIt has been legal for her to go.

24. That May be Omitted • Under certain circumstances the word that may be omitted in the that-clause. • Don't let this mislead you in identifying the pattern: • It's a good thing [that] you're not an octopus. • Well, it's clear [that] we're getting nowhere.

25. Is the Nominal a Subj./Obj.? It has been giving me much trouble to do this right. • The VP has a double object: oblique “me” and direct “much trouble”. Now, verbs don’t have more than 2 objects. Hence, the nominal cannot be an object. • Yet, it is not a straightforward subject either, since there is a subject: the expletive. • Furthermore, nominals do not carry case, and cannot be replaced and tested by case carrying pronouns.

26. Sample Question • Identify the XP sentences in the passage and classify them into their two sub-patterns: It's often been said that the best way to get in the game industry is through interviews. It requires the least amount of experience. After some failures, I realized my passion for game design wasn't enough to convince anyone to hire me. It didn't matter that I was a CS grad. It became obvious I needed to have a real game to show. It took me a couple of months to put one together, but then interviewers started paying attention to me. It was fascinating to see their reactions. It was absolutely fascinating.

27. Answer • XP Quotative: • It's often been said that the best way to get in the game industry is through interviews. • NOT XP: • It requires the least amount of experience. • XP Evaluative: • It didn't matter that I was a CS grad. • XP Quotative (that omitted): • It became obvious I needed to have a real game to show.

28. Answer Continued • XP Evaluative: • It took me a couple of months to put one together. • XP Evaluative: • It was fascinating to see their reactions. • NOT XP: • It was absolutely fascinating.

29. Homework • Identify the XP sentences in the following sentences and classify them into their two sub-patterns (evaluative and quotative): • It has come to my attention that students have not been aware of the regulations. • I have been informed that the event will take place after all. • It is unfortunate and certainly not my fault. • It might be best to just write to her again. • It’ll cost you a fortune to fix it.[Continued on next slide]

30. [Homework continued] • It could take days to restore water supplies. • It is useful to all members of the department. • It sounds awful to say this, but I will anyway. • It's great for us to end the weekend that way. • It’s so good you came today. • It’s been fun spending these days with you. • This is beneficial for the whole community that lives here. • It looks useful to me to download this program. • It has been decided, and that’s it!