ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1. Class 2 Lectio II ENGLISH GRAMMAR • Language: the means by which we express our thoughts, either spoken or written • Grammar: treats of the laws of language and the right method of using it • The elements of spoken language are vocal and articulate sounds • The elements of written language are characters or letters • Letters are formed into syllables and words, words into sentences • Grammar is divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody • Orthography treats of letters and syllables • Etymology treats of words • Syntax treats of sentences • And Prosody, of elocution and versification

2. Etymology Treats of the different sorts of words, and their various modification, and their derivations • A Word is an articulate sound used by common consent as the sign of an idea • Words, in formation, are either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound • A Primitive word is one that is not derived from another language e.g. boy, just • A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word e.g. boyish, justice • A Simple word is one that is not combined with another word e.g. man, house, city • A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more simple words e.g. horseman

3. Words • Words are either inflected or uninflected • An Inflected word is one which undergoes certain changes of form or termination • nouns and pronouns are declined • verbs areconjugated • adjectives and adverbs arecompared • In respect of signification and use, words are divided in classes called Parts of Speech • words which are names of objects are classed as nouns • words which qualify nouns are adjectives • words which attribute an action or state to a subject are verbs

4. Structure of Words • A simple word representing a single idea, whose origin is unknown, is a root • Derivatives are formed from these and also from foreign roots • by changing the vowel or modifying the consonants in the root • by prefixes and suffixes • a prefix is a letter or syllable before the root • a suffix is a letter or syllable after the root

5. Parsing • Parsing is the act of reducing a sentence into its basic elements • Parsing is classified as etymological and syntactical • A word is parsed etymologically by stating the class of words to which it belongs • These are known as accidents or grammatical properties

6. Parts of Speech Noun Pronoun Verb Article Adjective Adverb Preposition Interjection Conjunction Only the noun, pronoun and verb (and some adjectives and adverbs) are inflected

7. Nouns • A Noun is the name of any person, place, quality or thing • Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common • A Proper noun is the name applied to an individual only e.g. Igor, Moscow, Russia • A Common Noun is a name applied to all things of the same sort e.g. woman, car, computer, test • The names of actions, as running, flying, etc. are called verbal nouns

8. Accidents of Nouns Person, Number, Gender and Case Person • Person is the distinction of nouns to denote the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of I, Claudius, have … Professor, you can … Gaius Julius was a …

9. Gender • Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex • Masculine • Feminine • Neuter • Common Number • Number is that property of a noun by which it expresses one, or more than one • Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural • Singular denotes one • Plural denotes more than one

10. Case • Case is the state or condition of a noun with respect to the other words in a sentence • English has three cases, the Nominative, Possessive and Objective • A noun is in the Nominative case when: • It is used as the subject of a finite verb • When used as a predicate • When used absolutely, or independent of any other word (Vocative) • The Possessive case connects the idea of origin, possession or fitness with a noun e.g. sun’s rays, Anna’s car, women’s shoes • The Objective case is used to denote: • the object of a transitive verb, e.g. Matthew helps John • the object of a relation expressed by a preposition, e.g. She lives in Provo • time, value, weight or measure without a governing word, e.g.He is ten years old

11. Articles • An Article is a word put before a noun to indicate the manner in which it is used • There are two articles, indefinite and definite • The indefinite article (a/an) denotes a noun without grammatical distinction e.g. A man (i.e. any man, some man) • A definite article shows its noun refers to some particular person or thing e.g. The man (i.e. some man pointed out)

12. Adjectives • An Adjective is a word used to qualify a noun (substantive) • Nouns, pronouns, adverbs and prepositions can be used as adjectives sea water, she wolf, well child, above reference • Adjectives are of four types: Quality, Quantity, Circumstantial, and Participial

13. Adjective Types Sensible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Red Long Pleasant Quality One First Cardinal . . . . . . Ordinal . . . . . . Definite numeral Indefinite Distributive Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Few, many Each Much Quantity Daily Western German Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nation (proper adj.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circumstantial Funny Unwanted Descriptive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Verbal (compound) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Participial

14. Comparison of Adjective • Three degrees of comparison: Positive, Comparative, Superlative • Positive expresses a quality Iron is heavy, precious • Comparative expresses a quality in a higher degree Gold is heavier, more precious • Superlative expresses a quality in the highest degree • Uranium is heaviest, most precious • Some adjectives cannot (should not) be compared, e.g. • Numerals, adjectives that denote shape, figure or material (circular), definitives (this, that), or adjectives of an absolute or superlative signification (perfect, true)

15. Pronouns • A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun • The noun a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent • Pronouns are divided into Personal, Relative, Interrogative and Adjective

16. Personal Pronouns • Personal pronouns are pronouns that distinguish person. They are simple substitutes for the names of persons or things and have the same case, number and gender as the nouns they replace • Personal pronouns are either Simple or Compound Simple Personal Pronouns I mine me thou thine thee you yours you he his him she hers her it its they we ours us you yours you they theirs them Compound Personal Pronouns myself thyself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves Used only in the nominative (emphatic) and the objective (reflexive)

17. Adjective Pronouns Denote possession Represent objects as taken separately Examples my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their each, every, either, neither this, that, these, those none, any, all, such, whole, both, one, other, another Four classes Possessive Distributive Demonstrative Indefinite Point out object definitely Designate object indefinitely

18. The Verb A verb is a word used to express the act, being or state of a subject (a subject is that person or thing whose act, being or state the verb expresses) Classification of Verbs Meaning or Office Transitive Intransitive Attributive Form Regular Irregular Defective In formation of compound tenses Principle Auxiliary

19. Verb Meaning • A Transitive verb expresses an act done by one person or thing to another Augusta drives the chariot • An Intransitive verb expresses the being or state of its subject I am. He is very happy • An Attributive verb asserts and connects an attribute with its subject Grass is green. Man is mortal

20. Formation of Tenses A Regular verb is one that forms its past tense in the indicative mood active and it past participle, by adding –ed to the present present act, past acted, past participle acted An Irregular verb is one that does not form its past indicative and past participle in this way present write, past wrote, past participle written A Defective verb is one in which some of the parts are wanting. This class is comprised chiefly of Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs e.g. may, can, must

21. Inflection of Verbs The accidents of verbs are: Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, Person

22. Voice • Voice is a particular form of the verb which shows the relation of the subject to the action expressed by the verb • Transitive verbs have two voices, the Active and the Passive • The Active voice represents the subject as acting • Bernard hits the ball • The Passive voice represents the subject as acted upon • The ball is hit by Bernard • Intransitive verbs have no distinction of voice because they have no object which can be used as the subject in the passive • They run, I stand • Some intransitive verbs can be made transitive and so capable of a passive form • I laugh. I laugh at him. He is laughed at by me

23. Mood Mood is the manner or mode of expressing the signification of the verb • There are six moods in English • Indicative: declares the fact expressed by the verb • He loves. He is loved • Subjunctive: represents the action of the verb as conditional • If he works, he will improve. I wish you weren’t my professor. • Imperative: commands, exhorts, entreats or permits • Go away! Listen to his words. Follow the Prophet. • Potential: declares not the fact but the possibility of the verb • The wind may blow. Children should obey their parents. • Infinitive: expresses the meaning of the verb without distinction of person or number • to love • Participial: denotes action or state as continuing/incomplete or complete or finished without regard to time I saw him walking. The paper is written.

24. Tense Tenses are forms of the verb which serve to point out the distinctions of time English has either six or twelve tenses, depending on the grammar you follow* In English there are three classes of tense: Simple Perfect Progressive Simple Present: I walk Past: I walked Future: I will walk Progressive* Present progressive: I am walking Past progressive: I was walking Future progressive: I will be walking Present perfect progressive: I have been walking Past perfect progressive: I had been walking Future perfect progressive: I will have been walking Perfect Present perfect: I have walked Past perfect: I had walked Future perfect: I will have walked *in some grammars the progressive tense is considered a form created by prefixing the verb “to be” (in all moods and tenses) to the present participle

25. Number and Person • Each tense of the verb has two Numbers, the Singular and the Plural • In each number, the verb has three Persons, the first, second and third Conjugation of the Verb • Conjugation is the regular combination and arrangement of all voices, moods, tenses, numbers and persons • Verbs have four principle parts Present indicative . . . . . . . write Present participle . . . . . . . . writing Past indicative . . . . . . . . . . wrote Past participle . . . . . . . . . . . written

26. Irregular Verbs An irregular verb is a verb that does not form its past and past participle by adding –ed to the present active indicative stem e.g. cost Defective Verbs Verbs for which some of the parts are wanting e.g. to beware [inf. and imp.] Impersonal Verbs Verbs that assert the existence of some action, but refer it to no particular subject e.g. it behooves, it rains

27. Adverbs An Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb Manner………………..bravely Place…………………..here, there Time…………………..now, then Direction………………upward Affirmation……………yes, certainly Negation……………….no, not Interrogation……………how? why? Comparison…………….more, most, less Quantity………………..much, some, little Order ..…………………first, secondly Classes of Adverbs

28. Prepostions Are words which show the relation between the noun (pronoun) and some other word in the sentence e.g. The love of God Rest in …………………….he is in the house Motion to or from ……….he went into the house Rest or motion …………..over Place Time Agent Cause Misc. Time and place ………….at the place, at the time Time only ………………..until evening ………..……………………by his authority ……………………………..for our sake Separation ………………without Inclination ………………for Aversion ………………. .against Substitution …………….instead of Possession ……………..of Reference ………………..concerning Opposition ………………against

29. Interjections A word used in an exclamation to express an emotion of the mind e.g. oh, alas

30. CONJUCTIONS • Conjunctions are words which connect words, phrases or sentences e.g. and, or, nor • Conjunctions are of two classes, Copulative and Disjunctive • A Copulative joins sentences together and unites the meaning • Connective [connects the meaning] e.g. The sun shines and the sky is clear • Continuative [combine the meaning] e.g. The sun shines because the sky is clear • Disjunctives join two sentences together while disconnecting the meaning • Distributive [disconnect the meaning] e.g. You can go or you can stay • Adversative [contrast the meaning] e.g. It is day, but it is not light

31. Parsing Text The minutest plant or animal, if it is examined attentively, affords a thousand wonders and obliges us to admire and to adore that omnipotent hand by which it was created

32. Parsing Example The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definite article belonging to plant and animal minutest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Adjective, superlative degree, qualifyingplantand animal plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Noun, neuter, nominative singular, subject of affords or. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Disjunctive conjunction, distributive, connecting plant andanimal as alternative animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Noun, neuter, nominative singular, subject of affords if. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Copulative conjunction, continuative, connecting the sentences it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Third personal pronoun, neuter, nominative singular, standing for plant or animal, and subject of is examined is examined. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, present indicative, passive, expressing what is done to its subject it attentively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Adverb modifying examined; compared by more and most affords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, present indicative active, third person singular, and affirms of plant or animal a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Indefinite article, showing thousand wonders to be indefinite thousand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Numeral adjective, used to qualify wonders wonders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Noun, neuter, objective plural, object of affords and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Copulative conjunction, connective; connects the predicates affords and obliges obliges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, present indicative active, third person singular, and affirms ofplant or animal us. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .First personal pronoun, objective plural, object of obliges and subject of admire, etc. to admire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Verb, transitive, regular, present infinitive, active, attribute of us, or object of obliges and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Copulative conjunction, connective, connects to admire and to adore to adore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, present infinitive, active, attribute of us, or object of obliges that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Demonstrative adjective pronoun, pointing out hand omnipotent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Adjective, not compared, qualifying hand hand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Noun, neuter, objective singular, object of to admire and to adore by. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preposition which shows the relation between which and was created which. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Relative pronoun, related to hand as its antecedent, objective, object of the preposition by it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Third personal pronoun, neuter, nominative singular, standing forplant or animal, and subject of was created was created . . . . . . . . .. . . . .Verb, transitive, regular, past indicative, passive, third person singular, and affirms of it

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