Chapter 8: Sex Differences, Gender-Role Development, and Sexuality

1. Chapter 8: Sex Differences,Gender-Role Development,and Sexuality

2. 1. Gender-role standards Value, motive, or class of behavior considered more appropriate for one sex than the other Expressive roles Being kind, nurturant, cooperative, sensitive vs. instrumental roles Being dominant, assertive, independent, competitive, goal-oriented

3. 2. Psychological differences Verbal ability: Very slight difference Visual/spatial abilities Mathematical ability Aggression Activity level Fear, timidity, and risk taking Developmental vulnerability Emotional expressivity/sensitivity Compliance Self-esteem

4. 2. Psychological differences? Caution: the data reflect group averages, not any particular individual E.g., gender accounts for 5% of the variance for overt aggression 95% from differences between individuals, and not gender Ability diffs. are not large and are really at the extremes

5. 2. Psychological differences? Actually, we are more similar than different.

6. Some cultural myths about gender… Sociability Suggestibility/conformity Repetitive tasks vs. higher-level processing Analyticity Achievement motivation

7. Cultural Stereotypes Goldberg (1968) Gave college women articles to read Indicated they were written by a male author (“John McKay”) or a female author (Joan McKay”) Identical articles But participants rated the ones written by a male to be of higher quality

8. Cultural Stereotypes Kindergarten and first-grade girls already believe that they are not as good as boys in arithmetic! A self-fulfilling prophecy? Role of home? School?

9. Cultural Stereotypes Role of home? Parents Expect sons to outperform daughters in math Attribute sons’ math success to ability, but daughters’ success to effort Children internalize these views Girls suspect they lack ability and lose interest in math

10. Cultural Stereotypes Role of school? Teachers also have stereotypes E.g., that boys have more ability but that girls try harder

11. 3. Gender typing Gender identity: Awareness of one’s gender and its implications Gender concept 2-3 years: correctly label mommy and daddy 2.5 - 3: correctly label self

12. 3. Gender typing Gender-role stereotypes Who does what job? Kids label correctly by 2.5 - 3.5 years of age! What about adolescence? Gender intensification Magnification of sex differences Increased pressure to conform to stereotypes Eases up in late adolescence/emerging adulthood, but…

13. 3. Gender-typed behavior Gender segregation In many cultures Girls usu. prefer girls as playmates by age 2 Boys prefer boys as playmates by age 3 Children who prefer opposite sex chums are likely to be rejected by peers. Declines in adolescence

14. 3. Gender-typed behavior Sex differences in gender-typed behavior Adoption of toy preferences Pressures on boys Earlier pressure to prefer gender-consistent toys Pressures on girls Interestingly, girls are drawn to male activities Why might this be?

15. 3. Gender-typed behavior Subcultural variations Middle-class more flexible in gender-role attitudes African-American kids have less stereotyped views of women than Euro-American kids.

16. 3. Gender-typed behavior Counter-cultural families (Weisner) Aim for egalitarian treatment and androgyny They believe it’s good, but do they really do it? Not really. The kids are just as gender-typed in their behavior.

17. 4. Biological theories Money and Ehrhardt Here’s the pattern: Sex chromosomes affect fetal development Social interactions help to form a basic gender identity Adult gender identity is formed after puberty

18. 4. Biological theories The basic timeline: Before birth: exposure to androgens Androgens masculinize the gonads Testicular feminization syndrome (TFS ) Male fetus is insensitive to male sex hormones, develops female genitalia

19. 4. Biological theories The basic timeline: After birth: social interactors Puberty brings more sex hormones Body changes Increased sexual urges

20. 5. Freud’s theory Children enter a phallic stage (3 to 6 years) Gratify sexual instinct through genitals Develop Oedipus or Electra complex Boys develop gender identity because of fear of father Girls develop because of identification with mother Evaluation?

21. 6. Social Learning Theory Direct tuition Differential reinforcement Observational learning Adopt behaviors of same-sex models Role of media?

22. 7. Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) Based on Piaget Therefore based on cognitive development And, children actively socialize themselves (not passive) Three stages: Gender identity Gender stability Gender constancy (consistency)

23. 8. Gender Schema Theory Gender schema Beliefs and expectations about males and females Schemas influence what we attend to what we elaborate on what we remember

24. 8. Gender Schema Theory Some evidence in exploration and memory Boys vs. girls Gender schemas = structure for organizing and processing social information. A research example (Maynard, 2004): “Men Don’t Make Tortillas”

25. Research Method Adapted a generalized imitation paradigm Probs. with language-based protocol Zinacantec boys and girls, 2-5 years old

26. Generalized Imitation Paradigm 11 tasks 2 warm-up tasks 3 feminine activities Boiling beans, pressing tortillas, sewing 3 masculine activities Driving a car, riding a bicycle, playing soccer 3 neutral activities Sleeping under blankets, drinking from a cup, buying from a store

27. Results: Effect of Age Zinacantec boys and girls demonstrated knowledge of gender roles by age 3. 2- and 2.5-year-olds were not different from one another

28. Performance on the gender-stereotyped tasks by age and sex

29. Results: Effect of Gender The difference in boys’ performance came from the masculine tasks Boys were not yet differentiating the masculine tasks. Although the boys and girls had equal amounts of seeing the various tasks, girls had more direct experience in doing the feminine tasks than the boys had in doing the masculine tasks. Direct experiential practice for girls may lead to earlier knowledge of gender stereotypes.

30. 9. Sexuality and sexual behavior Culture influences sexuality. Adolescent attitudes Increasingly liberal Premarital sex with affection is o.k. But most don’t list affection as the reason for first intercourse Decline of the double standard

31. Sexual behavior in adolescence:Premarital sex in high school students over generations

32. STDs 20% of US adolescents will contract an STD Syphillis, Gonorrhea, Chlamydia Genital herpes, AIDs, HPV AIDs is growing fastest among adolescents

33. Teen Pregnancy and Childbearing US has highest teen pregnancy rate of industrialized nations. Risks for teen moms: dropping out of school losing friends being insufficiently prepared

34. Teen Pregnancy and Childbearing Risks for babies of teen moms Mom more likely to use alcohol and drugs while pregnancy Inadequate prenatal care So, sometimes, intellectual delays

35. 10. Sexual identity Sex/gender role identity development: internalizing knowledge of broad cultural expectations of behavior Sexual orientation Heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual

36. 10. Sexual identity Some theories that we are born with a sexual orientation Baumrind: bisexual people may choose to adopt a heterosexual identity Other studies find that both women and men may identify as homosexual in adulthood after identifying as heterosexual in adolescence. Genes probably contribute about half of our sexual orientation and environment the other half.

37. 11. Social Construction of Sexuality Conceptions of sexuality are not static over time Conceptions of sexuality vary with geography Sexuality is socio-culturally conditioned

38. Social Situations Reinforce Scripting Behavior Sexual scripts are Acquired Reinforced Negotiated …during social interactions.

39. Sexualizing Our World The culture’s sexual script dictates those behaviors and sensations that will be deemed sexual and erotic.

40. Cultural Movements and Social Perceptions of Sexuality Feminism Movement- Diversity of women’s roles suggest malleability of gender roles and sexual scripts AIDS Research- recognition and investigation in a variety of sexual interests and pursuits

41. Condom Use and Sexual Scripts “the internalization of these relational norms may result in negative attitudes towards the use of condoms because of their association with casual sex” -Hynie, Lydon, Cote and Wiener, 1998

42. Conclusions about sexual scripts: Sexual Scripts dictate our emotions, cognitions and behaviors surrounding sexuality We can use our knowledge of the socio-cultural influences to guide constructive scripts that foster equality, respect and healthy partner relationships.

43. 12. Sex Ed Abstinence-only programs don’t prevent pregnancy or the spread of STDs. In fact, they contribute to their increase. Abstinence may be best strategy to teach to preteens and early adolescents. Top strategy is to build self-esteem. Older teens need more info on contraception and STDs and ways they can resist pressures to have sex.