E_English Grammar Course

1. E_English Grammar Course Chapter VIII Coordination, Ellipsis, & Apposition

2. Issues 1. Coordination + Phrasal + Clausal 2. Ellipsis + Ellipsis in coordinated clauses 3. Apposition + Non-restrictive + Restrictive

3. 1/1 Coordination 1.1 = the combination of two or more equal units, namely, phrases or clauses Coordination E.g.: My friend and I went there together. We went there and returned immediately. I told him this, but he didn't believe me.

4. 2/1 Coordination 1.1 = can be referred to by some grammarians as syndetic (with the presence of coordinators) and asyndetic (with the absence of coordinators) Coordination E.g.: Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards his victim. (syndetic) Slowly, stealthily, he crept towards his victim. (asyndetic)

5. 3/1 Coordination 1.1 Coordination = coordination of phrase of equal status Phrasal = coordination of clause of equal status Clausal

6. 4/1 Phrasal Coordination 1.2 Coordination • including: • + coordinated NPs (in different syntactic functions) • E.g.: Peter and Tom were here. • She is afraid of snakes and cockroaches. • Old and young men were invited. • He has secretaries from Ireland and auditors from France here. • These and those chairs are wooden. Phrasal Clausal

7. 5/1 Phrasal Coordination 1.2 Coordination • including: • + coordinated Adverbial phrases (with dependent • clauses) • E.g.: You can wash it manuallyorby using a machine. • They can call this week or whenever they wish. • I want to know by whom and for whom it was • ordered. Phrasal Clausal

8. 6/1 Phrasal Coordination 1.2 Coordination Phrasal • including: • + coordinated Adjective phrases • E.g.: She is young and beautiful. • His clear and forceful delivery impressed the • audience. • These jewels were very cheap and gaudy. Clausal

9. 7/1 Phrasal Coordination 1.2 Coordination Phrasal • including: • + coordinated Prepositional phrases • E.g.: The attacks in June and in July failed • He climbed up the wall and over the wall. • John complained to Mary and to Peter. Clausal

10. 8/1 Phrasal Coordination 1.2 Coordination Phrasal • including: • + coordination of identical items • E.g.: He felt more and more bored. • They talked on and on and on. Clausal

11. 9/1 Phrasal Coordination 1.2 Coordination • Order in phrasal coordination: • + a tendency for the shorter word to come first • E.g.: big and ugly • cup and saucer • + in virtually irreversible order • E.g.: bread and butter • law and order • knife, folk, and spoon • by hook or by crook Phrasal Clausal

12. 10/1 Phrasal Coordination 1.2 • can be segregatory (possibly paraphrased into 2 or • more coordinated clauses) • E.g.: John and Mary have a cold • (John has a cold and Mary has a cold.) • can be combinatory (impossibly paraphrased into • coordinated clauses) • E.g.: John and Mary make a good couple • (no analogous paraphrase) • He painted his car black and white. • (a combined process) Coordination Phrasal Clausal

13. 11/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Coordination • including: • + coordinated independent clauses • E.g.: She didn't want their help, but she had to accept it. • + coordinated subordinate clauses • E.g.: I want to know for whom it was ordered and by • whom (it was ordered) • She desired to know where he had gone but not • why he had gone. Phrasal Clausal

14. 12/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Syntactic features of Coordinators Clause coordinators: restricted to clause-initial position Coordinated clauses: sequentially fixed Coordinators: preceded by a conjunction Coordinators: link clause constituents Coordinators: link subordinate clauses Coordinators: link more than two clauses

15. 13/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Syntactic features of Coordinators Clause coordinators: restricted to clause-initial position E.g.: John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano. Coordinated clauses: sequentially fixed Coordinators: preceded by a conjunction Coordinators: link clause constituents Coordinators: link subordinate clauses Coordinators: link more than two clauses

16. 14/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Syntactic features of Coordinators Clause coordinators: restricted to clause-initial position Coordinated clauses: sequentially fixed Coordinators: preceded by a conjunction E.g.: They are living in England, or they are spending a vacation there. Coordinators: link clause constituents Coordinators: link subordinate clauses Coordinators: link more than two clauses

17. 15/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Syntactic features of Coordinators Clause coordinators: restricted to clause-initial position Coordinated clauses: sequentially fixed Coordinators: precede conjunctions E.g.: He was unhappy about it, and yet he did as he was told. Coordinators: link clause constituents Coordinators: link subordinate clauses Coordinators: link more than two clauses

18. 16/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Syntactic features of Coordinators Clause coordinators: restricted to clause-initial position Coordinated clauses: sequentially fixed Coordinators: preceded by a conjunction Coordinators: link clause constituents E.g.: They love him and believe in him. I may see you tomorrow or may phone later in the day. Coordinators: link subordinate clauses Coordinators: link more than two clauses

19. 17/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Syntactic features of Coordinators Clause coordinators: restricted to clause-initial position Coordinated clauses: sequentially fixed E.g.: I wonder whether you should speak to him personally orwhether it is better to write to him. Coordinators: preceded by a conjunction Coordinators: link clause constituents Coordinators: link subordinate clauses Coordinators: link more than two clauses

20. 18/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Syntactic features of Coordinators Clause coordinators: restricted to clause-initial position Coordinated clauses: sequentially fixed Coordinators: preceded by a conjunction Coordinators: link clause constituents E.g.: The battery may be disconnected, or the connection may be loose, or the bulb may be faulty. Coordinators: link subordinate clauses Coordinators: link more than two clauses

21. 19/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Coordinators AND OR BUT

22. 20/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence Contrast 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

23. 21/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence E.g.: He heard an explosion and he (therefore) phoned the police. Contrast 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

24. 22/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence Contrast E.g.: I washed the dishes and (then) I dried them. 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

25. 23/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence Contrast 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st E.g.: Robert is secretive and (in contrast) David is candid. 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

26. 24/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence Contrast 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd E.g.: They disliked John - and that's not surprising. 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

27. 25/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence Contrast 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st E.g.: Give me some money and (then) I'll help escape. 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

28. 26/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence Contrast E.g.: A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange could be arranged. 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

29. 27/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence Contrast 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd E.g.: He has long hair and (also) he often wears jeans. 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

30. 28/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “AND” Addition of consequence or result Addition of chronological sequence Contrast 2nd clause being a comment on the 1st 1st clause being a condition of the 2nd 2nd clause making a point similar to the 1st E.g.: She tried hard and (yet) she failed. 2nd clause being a “pure” addition to the 1st 2nd clause being felt surprising in view of the 1st

31. 29/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “OR” Exclusive choice If one of the individual conjoins is true, then the whole sentence is true. Inclusive choice Restatement or correction of previously - mentioned idea Negative condition

32. 30/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “OR” Exclusive choice E.g.: You can go there by car or you can walk there. Inclusive choice Restatement or correction of previously - mentioned idea Negative condition

33. 31/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “OR” Exclusive choice Inclusive choice E.g.: You can boil an egg, or you can make some cheese sandwiches, or you can do both. Restatement or correction of previously - mentioned idea Negative condition

34. 32/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “OR” Exclusive choice E.g.: He began his educational career, or, in other words, he started to attend the local kindergarten. Inclusive choice Restatement or correction of previously - mentioned idea Negative condition

35. 33/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “OR” Exclusive choice Inclusive choice Restatement or correction of previously - mentioned idea E.g.: Give me some money or I'll shoot. Negative condition

36. 34/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “BUT” Unexpected contrast Contrast being restatement (negative > < affirmative)

37. 35/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “BUT” Unexpected contrast E.g.: John is poor, but he's happy. He didn't want their help, but he had to accept it. Contrast being restatement (negative > < affirmative)

38. 36/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Semantic implications of “BUT” Unexpected contrast Contrast being restatement (negative > < affirmative) E.g.: John didn't waste his time in the week before the exam, but studied hard every evening.

39. 37/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Correlatives both…and either…or neither…nor others

40. 38/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Correlatives both…and • with anticipated addition • E.g.: He both has long hair and wears jeans. either…or neither…nor others

41. 39/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Correlatives both…and either…or • with anticipated alternation • E.g.: He either has long hair or wears jeans. neither…nor others

42. 40/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Correlatives both…and • with anticipated additional negation • E.g.: He neither has long hair nor wears jeans. either…or neither…nor others

43. 41/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Correlatives both…and • “nor/neither” - correlated with actual or • implied negative in the previous clause • E.g.: He did not want to ask them for help; • (but) nor could he do without their help. • “not only ... but (also)” • E.g.: They not only broke into his office and • stole his book, but they (also) tore up his • manuscripts. either…or neither…nor others

44. 42/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Quasi-coordinators as well as • E.g.: He publishes as well as prints his books. • She was pitied rather than disliked. • these coordinators can have a prepositional • or subordinating role • E.g.: As well as printing his books, he • publishes them. • Rather than cause trouble, I’m going to • forget the whole affair. • John, as much as (= with) his brother, • was responsible for the loss. as much as rather than more than

45. 43/1 Clausal Coordination 1.3 Non-restrictive relative clauses • semantically considered as equivalent to coordinate clauses • E.g.: John didn’t go to the show, which is a pity. • = John didn’t go to the show, and that is a pity.

46. 1/2 Ellipsis 2.1 Ellipsis • described as “grammatical omission” of elements • which are precisely recoverable from the • linguistic or situational context E.g.: Have you spoken to him? (I have) Not yet (spoken to him).

47. 2/2 Ellipsis 2.1 Ellipsis • normally occurs in coordinated clauses, comparative • clauses, question-answer sentences, and other context • where adjacent clauses are related in form & meaning E.g.: I thought they were on the seat, but they’re not (on the seat). She looks older than her mother (does). When’s he coming back? – (He’s coming back) Next Friday.

48. 3/2 Ellipsis 2.1 Ellipsis • occurs in 3 positions: initial, medial, and final E.g.: He squeezed her hand out but (he) met with no excuse. He and his mate both jumped out, he (jumped out) to go to the women, his mate (jumped out) to stop other traffic on the bridge. Perhaps, as the review gathers steam, this can now change. It needs to (change).

49. 4/2 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses 2.2 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses Ellipsis of subject Ellipsis of auxiliary only Ellipsis of predicate/predication Ellipsis of Od/Cs only Ellipsis of A Ellipsis of Head-noun/Cprep

50. 5/2 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses 2.2 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses Ellipsis of subject Ellipsis of auxiliary only • identical subjects of coordinated clauses are ellipted • E.g.: Peter ate a cheese sandwich and (Peter/he) drank a glass of beer. • sometimes, ellipsis of both S and auxiliary occurs • E.g.: Mary has washed the dishes, (she has) dried them, and (she has) • put them in the cupboard. Ellipsis of predicate/predication Ellipsis of Od/Cs only Ellipsis of A Ellipsis of Head-noun/Cprep