The 19 th Century

1. The 19th Century From Reaction to Revolution, 1815-1850

2. Peace Settlement after Napoleon: Congress of Vienna • Met in March of 1814 • Consisted of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia • Leader was Klemens von Metternich of Austria - guided by the principle of legitimacy • Territorial arrangements • Bourbons restored in France and Spain • Poland is reduced and placed under the control of Russia • Prussia gains some of Saxony and territory along the Rhine • Austria gains control of northern Italy • Point of these rearrangements was to restore the balance of power in Europe

3. Goal of Congress:Containment of France • A means to restoring the balance of power was containing France • Territorial changes • Kingdom of the Netherlands • Enlargement of Piedmont • Prussia on the Rhine • Formation of the Germanic Confederation • Napoleon’s return from Elba and Consequences for France

4. Results of Congress of Vienna • The Congress of Vienna, though generally seen as restricted, did prevent a general European conflict for over a century

5. What is Conservatism? • Was a reaction to contain the liberal and nationalist forces that were unleashed by the French Revolution • Beliefs • Favored obedience to political authority • Organized religion was crucial to social order • Hated revolutionary upheavals • Unwilling to accept liberal demands for civil liberties or nationalistic aspirations • Community took precedence over individual rights • Society must be organized and orderly • Tradition remained the best guide for order

6. Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France • Modern conservatism is seen as originating with Burke • Wrote Reflections in response to the radical republican and democratic ideas of the Revolution • Maintained that society was a contract, both past and present • Advised against the violent overthrow of government, but not change altogether - change had to occur gradually

7. Joseph de Maistre's Concept of Order over Chaos • Most influential spokesman for counterrevolutionary and authoritarian conservatism • Espoused restoration of heredity monarchy as a divinely sanctioned government and the best means to preserve society

8. Conservative Domination:Concert of Europe • Concert of Europe was seen as a means to maintain the new status quo – Quadruple Alliance of GB, Prussia, Austria & Russia • Held several conferences from 1818-1822 • Aix-la-Chapelle (1818); France is added forming Quintuple Alliance • Troppau (1820) • Called to discuss the outbreak of revolution in Spain and Italy • Metternich calls for intervention to restore the legitimate monarchs to their thrones

9. Intervention by the Great Powers • Protocol of Troppau authorizes the intervention of the Alliance, though the British are hesitant • Other members ignore Britain’s reservations and Britain withdraws • Austria, Prussia, and Russia meet at Laibach in 1821 and authorize intervention in Italy • Verona, 1822 – three powers authorize French intervention in Spain to restore Bourbons • The success of the policy of intervention has its cost as the Concert of Europe is broken

10. Revolt in Latin America • Although British are unable to prevent intervention in Europe, they are able to prevent the restoration of Spanish rule in Latin America • Most of Latin America had gained independence during the Napoleonic period, Spain wanted to restore control with the support of the continental powers • British opposition, the Monroe Doctrine and the Royal Navy • Still, though they gained political independence, Latin America was soon dominated by British and American merchants with damaging consequences

11. The Greek Revolt, 1821-1832 • The policy of intervention was also a double-edge sword using it not only to prevent revolution, but also support it when it was in their best interest • 1821 – Greeks rebel against their Ottoman rulers • French, British and Russian intervention • Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 ends war • Greek Independence in 1830 • Only revolution that succeeded because the Great Powers wanted it to

12. The Conservative Domination:Britain • Landed aristocracy still dominated both houses of Parliament and thus government • Suffrage was still very limited and unequal • The new industrial cities of Birmingham and Manchester had no representatives while the gentry dominated through their control of pocket and rotten boroughs • The Tories and the Corn Law (1815) • Discontent among the working class and the Peterloo Massacre (1819) • Minor reforms hold off any major electoral reforms until the 1830’s

13. The Conservative Domination:Bourbon Restoration in France • Restoration of Louis XVIII in 1814 • Recognized that some of the reforms of the Revolution and Napoleon had to be accepted - the Civil Code and property rights were preserved • He also established a bi-cameral legislature whose lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, was chosen by an electorate no more than 100,000 wealthy people • Problems with the Ultra Royalists

14. The Conservative Domination: Charles X and the Revolt of 1830 • Initiative passed to the Ultras in 1824 with the death of Louis XVIII • Succession of the Comte de Artois, who became Charles X • He immediately began to pursue an ultraconservative policy • Public outcry in 1827 forced him to compromise, but he reneged in 1829 and dissolved the legislature in 1830 placing France on the brink of another revolution

15. Repression of Liberalism in Central Europe • In the Vienna settlement, Germany was divided into 38 sovereign states • Prussia and Austria remained the dominant powers with Metternich keeping an eye on everything • Liberals of Germany looked to Prussia, but hopes are misplaced

16. Burchenschaften Movement Thwarted in Germany • Burchenschaften Movement • As a result, many of the liberal and nationalist movements in German were restricted to the Universities • From 1817 to 1819, they engaged in a variety of activities that alarmed the German governments • Wartburg Festival (1817) • The Karlsbad Decrees (1819) • Closed the Burchenschaften • Censorship of the press and placed the universities under close supervision • Except for a flurry of activity between 1830 & 1832, the conservative status quo was maintained in Germany

17. Tsarist Autocracy in Russia • Promised Reforms • Rise of the Northern Union • The Decemberist Revolt (December 1825) • The Reaction of Nicholas I

18. Ideologies of Change:Liberalism • What it was • An ideology which owed much to the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions • Two types: Economic and Political

19. Economic Liberalism • Primary tenet was laissez-faire, the belief that the state should not interfere in the free play of economic forces and restrict itself to defense of the country, police, and the building of public works too expensive for individuals • If allowed economic liberty, individuals would bring about the maximum good for the maximum number and benefit the general welfare of society • Thomas Malthus on Population: Essay on the Principles of Population • David Ricardo on Wages: Principles of Political Economy

20. Political Liberalism • Protection of civil liberties or the basic rights of all people which included equality before the law, freedom of assembly, speech, and press, and freedom from arbitrary arrest • All of these freedoms should be guaranteed by a written document • Separation of Church and State • Peaceful opposition to government and the making of laws by a representative assembly - constitutional monarchy with ministerial responsibility • Equal civil rights, not equal political rights

21. Nationalism • Powerful ideology that arose out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language and customs; focus of loyalty • Did not become a force for change until the French Revolution and then after nationalists believed each nationality should have its own government • Therefore, it threatened to upset the existing political order and destroy the balance of power established at Vienna

22. Early Socialism • Another ideology for change that appeared in response to the conditions found in the slums, mines and factories created by the Industrial Revolution • Product of theorists and intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characterized early industrial capitalism • Examples • The Phalansteries of Charles Fourier • Robert Owen's New Lanark • Louis Blanc and State Socialism

23. Another French Revolution: Fall of Charles X • Elections of 1830 brought another victory to the French liberals and Charles decides to act • July Ordinances: 26 July 1830 Charles issues a series of edicts that imposed rigid censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly and reduced the electorate in preparation for a new election • His actions prompted an immediate rebellion known as the July Revolution • Accession of Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orleans and constitutional monarchy

24. The Middle Class Rule of Louis-Philippe • Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) has been called the bourgeois monarch because he support came from the middle class • Constitutional changes instituted favored the interests of the upper bourgeoisie • Meanwhile, not all were happy with the situation • To the upper middle class, the bourgeois monarchy was the stopping place for political progress • For the lesser bourgeois and the working class, instrumental in the overthrow of Charles X, it was a severe disappointment

25. Parties of Movement and Resistance • There was also differences of opinion about the monarchy and its direction in the Chamber of Deputies • Two groups emerged, though both were composed of upper middle class representatives • The Party of Movement • The Party of Resistance • After 1840, Francois Guizot and the Party of Resistance dominated the Chamber of Deputies

26. New Revolutionary Outbursts • Belgium • Belgium, which had been added to the Netherlands at Vienna to provide a northern bulwark to France, rebelled in 1830 • The languages, traditions, and religions of the two had been incompatible and an independent and neutral Belgium was recognized by the European states • Poland and Italy • Rebellions in Italy and Poland in 1830 were less successful • Austria crushed the revolts in three Italian states and Russia crushed the Polish rebellion in 1831 and imposed a oppressive military dictatorship over Poland

27. Reform in Britain • In 1830, the Whigs regained power in Britain • Influence of the July Revolution on the Whigs • Recognized that reform was preferable to revolution • Introduction of the Reform Act of 1832

28. Whig Reform Act of 1832 • Gave explicit recognition to the changes wrought in British life by the Industrial Revolution • It disfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and enfranchised 42 new towns and cities and reapportioned others • A property qualification was retained (£10 of annual rent) and thus the electorate only increased from 478,000 to 814,000 • Therefore, the Reform Act benefited mostly the upper middle class as the lower middle class and artisans and workers still did not have the vote

29. Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) • Another important piece of liberal legislation was the repeal of the Corn Laws • Richard Cobden, John Bight and the Anti-Corn Law League (1838) • The repeal also found support among the industrial middle class, who as economic liberals, favored the principals of free trade • The Laws were finally repealed in 1846 when Robert Peel, leader of the Tories persuaded some of his associates to support free trade and abandon the Corn Laws

30. Yet Another French Revolution • In 1846, a severe industrial and agricultural depression brought great hardship to the French working class • Additionally, scandals, graft and corruption were rife and the government’s refusal to extend the suffrage further angered the disfranchised members of the middle class • Opposition to Louis-Philippe’s government rises • Call for reform in the “political banquet”

31. Yet Another French Revolution • During the winter of 1847-48, over seven banquets were held with a grand culminating banquet planned for Paris on February 22 • The government forbade the banquet, but people still came and barricades again rose in Paris • Louis-Philippe now proposed reforms but could not form another ministry and abdicated on February 24

32. Yet Another French Revolution • A provisional government of moderate and radical republicans was established • Louis Blanc and the national workshops • In the elections for the new National Assembly, the radicals whose support came from the working class of Paris were in a distinct minority • Closing of the national workshops, June 23 • The workers refused to accept the decision and poured into the streets - in four days of bloody battle, government forces crushed the uprising

33. The Second Republic • On 4 November 1848, a new constitution was ratified with a unicameral legislature elected by universal male suffrage with a president serving for four years • In the elections held in December 1848, four republicans were soundly defeated by Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

34. Frankfurt Assembly in Germany • The news of the revolution in Paris set off other revolutions throughout Germany and central Europe • Rulers soon granted constitutions and liberal reforms (e.g., universal male suffrage) • The citizens of Germany were then allowed to vote for deputies to an assembly at Frankfurt to prepare a constitution for a united Germany

35. Frankfurt Assembly in Germany • Many of the delegates at the assembly were ahead of their terms in terms of nationalism • Cause of Controversy • “Big” or “Small” Germany

36. Failure of the Frankfurt Assembly • The problem of a “Big” or “Small” Germany was made mute when the Austrians withdrew and Frederick William IV refused the title of emperor of Germany • With the Prussian withdraw, the assembly disbanded as they had no means to impose their constitution on Germany • Therefore, the Frankfurt Assembly and the German liberal’s dream for a united Germany were a failure

37. Revolution in Austria • Upheavals also occurred in the Austrian Empire, and their immediate result was the dismissal of Metternich • Calls for a constitution • Louis Kossuth and Calls for Hungarian autonomy • Conservative recovery • Emperor Ferdinand is replaced by his nephew Francis Joseph • Austrians, with Russian support, reestablish control over Hungary

38. Mazzini's Risorgimento in Italy • With the failure of the 1830 revolutions, the nationalist movement in Italy came under the guidance of Giuseppe Mazzini, a dedicated Italian nationalist who founded a organization known as Young Italy in 1831 • His, and other nationalists, dreams seemed on the verge of fulfillment as several Italian states rose in revolt in 1848 • The rulers granted liberal constitutions with Charles Albert of Piedmont assuming a leadership role • Failure of 1848

39. Failures of 1848 • Although the Revolutions of 1848 were initially successful, there were two main reasons why they failed

40. Failure of 1848 • In the beginning, the radicals and moderates were aligned against the conservatives • However, that alliance soon broke over the greater and more radical demands of the working class • Fearful for their property and security, the middle class rallied to the old ruling classes for the sake of order and fear of social revolution by the workers

41. Failure of 1848 • The other reason was the division of nationalities • Again, they had allied against their overlord, but once that had been achieved, they soon fought among themselves • The best example was the Hungarians • They wanted to autonomy from the Austrians but refused the same to their minorities, the Slovenes, Croats and Serbs • As a result, the Austrians were able to regain control by playing Hungary’s minorities against the Hungarians