Public Management Public Service Motivations Wednesday, June 4, 2014

Public ManagementPublic Service MotivationsWednesday, June 4, 2014 Hun Myoung Park, Ph.D. Public Management & Policy Analysis ProgramGraduate School of International Relations

Motivation in Public Management • A fundamental topic in social science. • No conclusive evidence of a “science of motivation.” • Motivation is more of a craft; leaders draw on techniques, ideas, and insights. • The constraining character of government and the political environment present challenges for motivating in the public sector. • A trend focusing on human capital is evidence of a consensus of the topic’s importance.

Public Personnel Administration • Position classification • Evaluating performance vs. dehumanizing • Recruitment, selection, and promotion • All segments of the population • Open, competitive exam and ranking system: performance exam, written exam, oral exam, and assessment centers • Merit-oriented promotion and seniority • Performance appraisal • Self-appraisals, peer ratings, group ratings, external ratings; balanced scorecard

Motivations • Psychological forces that determine the direction of behavior, level of effort, level of persistence. • Intrinsic motivation • Comes from doing the work itself • Extrinsic motivation • To acquire materials or social rewards • To avoid punishment • Comes from the consequences of the behavior • Workers’ own personal characteristics; nature of their job; nature of organizations

Work Motivations • Work motivation: a person’s desire to work hard and work well--to the arousal, direction, and persistence of effort in work settings. • Motivation alone does not determine performance. • A general idea (umbrella concept) rather than a precisely defined research target. • Organizational commitment • Job involvement • Organizational climate • Leadership practices

Need and Value • Need is a resource or condition required for the well-being of an individual • Motive is a force acting within an individual that causes him to see to obtain or avoid some external object • Value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.

Push and Full Factors • “Push” Factors • Intrinsic and external impetuses that arouse and direct effort, needs, motives and values • “Pull” Factors • Incentives, goals, and objectives pull.

The Complexity of Human Needs and Values Rokeach’s Value Survey (1973) Murray’s List of Basic Needs (1938) Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (1954) Alderfer’s ERG Model (1972) Terminal Values Instrumental Values Ambitious (hard working, aspiring) Broad-minded (open-minded) Capable (competent, effective) Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful) Clean (neat, tidy) Courageous (standing up for one’s beliefs) Forgiving (willing to pardon others) Helpful (working for the welfare of others) Honest (sincere, truthful) Imaginative (daring, creative) Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient) Intellectual (intelligent, reflective) Logical (consistent, rational) Loving (affectionate, tender) Obedient (dutiful, respectful) Polite (courteous, well-mannered) Responsible (dependable, reliable) Self-controlled (restrained, self-disciplined) Self-actualization needs Esteem needs Belongingness social needs Safety needs Physiological needs A comfortable (prosperous) life An exciting (stimulating) life A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) A world at peace (free of war and conflict) A world of beauty (of nature and the arts) Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) Family security (taking care of loved ones) Freedom (independence, free choice) Happiness (contentedness) Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) National security (protection from attack) Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life) Salvation (eternal life) Self-respect (self-esteem) Social recognition (respect, admiration) True friendship (close companionship) Wisdom (a mature understanding of life) Growth needs Relatedness needs Existence needs Abasement Achievement Affiliation Aggression Autonomy Counteraction Defendance Dominance Exhibition Harm avoidance Nurturance Order Play Rejection Sentience Sex Succorance Understanding

Types of Incentives Incentive Type Definitions and Examples Incentives “specifically offered to an individual” Money, things, physical conditions Distinction, prestige, personal power, dominating position “Satisfaction of ideals about nonmaterial future or altruistic relations” (pride of workmanship, sense of adequacy, altruistic service for family or others, loyalty to organization, esthetic and religious feeling, satisfaction of hate and revenge) Incentives that “cannot be specifically offered to an individual” Social compatibility, freedom from hostility due to racial, religious differences Conformity to habitual practices, avoidance of strange methods and conditions Association with large, useful, effective organization Personal comfort in social relations Barnard (1938) Specific Incentives Material inducements Personal, nonmaterialistic inducements Desirable physical conditions of work Ideal benefactions General incentives Associational attractiveness Customary working conditions Opportunity for feeling of enlarged participation in course of events Condition of communion

Types of Incentives Incentive Type Definitions and Examples Simon (1948) Incentives for employee participation Incentives for elites or controlling groups Clark and Wilson (1961) and Wilson (1973) Material incentives Solidary incentives Specific solidary incentives Collective solidary incentives Purposive incentives Salary or wage, status and prestige, relations with working group, promotion opportunities Prestige and power Tangible rewards that can be easily priced (wages and salaries, fringe benefits, tax reductions, changes in tariff levels, improvement in property values, discounts, services, gifts) Intangible incentives without monetary value and not easily translated into one, deriving primarily from the act of associating Incentives that can be given to or withheld from a specific individual (offices, honors, deference) Rewards created by act of associating and enjoyed by all members if enjoyed at all (fun, conviviality, sense of membership or exclusive-collective status or esteem) Intangible rewards that derive from satisfaction of contributing to worthwhile cause (enactment of a law, elimination of government corruption)

Incentives in Organizations • Clark and Wilson (1961) differentiate 3 types: • Material incentives: tangible rewards, often monetary – wages, fringe benefits, patronage • Solidary incentives: intangible rewards from the act of association – sociability, status • Purposive incentives: intangible rewards related to the goals of the organization – e.g., working on an election of a supported candidate

Incentives and Organization Type • Utilitarian organizations rely primarily on material incentives (business firms, labor unions). • Clark and Wilson predict they will have fairly precise-cost accounting machinery (Scott p. 172). • Managers will focus on obtaining necessary material incentives. • Conflicts will be about distribution. • Organizational goals will be secondary to incentives.

Incentives and Organization Type • Solidary organizations (service-oriented voluntary organizations and social clubs) are places where people make contributions in return for sociability and status. • Executive efforts at securing prestige, good fellowship • Organizational goals are non-controversial and socially acceptable. • These organizations tend to be less flexible and more public in actions and decisions.

Incentives and Organization Type • Purposive organizations rely on their stated goals to attract and retain people (Clark and Wilson, 1961). • Executives need to maintain inducements, but when goals are lofty this is difficult to sustain. • Often their efforts fail initially or intermittently (don't elect candidate, don't stop hunger, etc.). • Sometimes the goals are too vague or only support a minority of interests.

Public Service Motivation 1 • Perry and Wise (1990): PSM as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in pubic institutions and organizations” (p. 368) • Perry (1996) creates a scale to measure PSM using confirmatory factor analysis • Attraction to public policy making • Commitment to public interest • Compassion • Self-sacrifice

Dimensions and Questionnaire Measures of Public Service Motivation Dimension Questionnaire Items Politics is a dirty word. (Reversed)* The give and take of public policymaking doesn’t appeal to me. (Reversed) I don’t care much for politicians. (Reversed) It is hard to get me genuinely interested in what is going on in my community. (Reversed) I unselfishly contribute to my community. Meaningful public service is very important to me. I would prefer seeing public officials do what is best for the community, even if it harmed my interests. I consider public service a civic duty. I am rarely moved by the plight of the underprivileged. (Reversed) Most social programs are too vital to do without. It is so difficult for me to contain my feelings when I see people in distress. To me, patriotism includes seeing to the welfare of others. I seldom think about the welfare of people whom I don’t know personally. (Reversed) I am often reminded by daily events about how dependent we are on one another. I have little compassion for people in need who are unwilling to take the first step to help themselves. There are few public programs I wholeheartedly support. (Reversed) Making a difference in society means more to me than personal achievements. I believe in putting duty before self. Doing well financially is definitely more important to me than doing good deeds. (Reversed) Much of what I do is for a cause bigger than myself. Serving citizens would give me a good feeling even if no one paid me for it. I feel people should give back to society more than they get from it. I am one of those rare people who would risk personal loss to help someone else. I am prepared to make enormous sacrifices for the good of society. Attraction to Public Affairs Commitment to the Public Interest Compassion Self-Sacrifice

Research in PSM • Perry (2000) uses the measurement scale to investigate the correlation between PSM and 5 antecedents: • Parental socialization • Religious socialization • Professional identification • Political ideology • Individual demographic characteristics

Public Service Motivation 2 • Sociohistorical context: education, socialization (religion, parental relations), life event • Motivational context: institutions (beliefs, values, ideologies), job characteristics, organizational incentives, work environment • Individual characteristics: abilities competencies, self-concept (values and identity), self-regulatory processes • Behavior: rational choice, rule-governed behavior, obligation

Content vs. Process Theory • Content theories of motivation are concerned with analyzing the particular needs, motives and rewards that affect motivation. • Process theories of motivation concentrate on psychological and behavioral processes behind motivation. • Distinctions can overlap and need not be taken as confining.

Content Theory • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1954) • McGregor’s Theory X and Y (1960) • Herzberg’s two factor theory (1968) • McClelland’s 3 motivational needs (1961) • Alderfer (1972): growth, relatedness, and existence needs. • J. Stacy Adams’equity theory (1965)

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1954) • Physiological needs-->safety needs--> social needs (love, affection, and belonging)-->self-esteem needs--> self-actualization needs • The first lower level is associated with the most basic needs, physiological needs. • Higher needs only motivate behavior when the lower needs in the pyramid are met. • Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized and no longer motivate behavior.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self- Actualization Esteem Needs Belongingness & Love Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs

McGregor’s Theory X and Y (1960) • Theory X assumes workers lacking capacity for self-motivation and self-direction and calls for control • Theory Y assumes workers having high-order needs (growth, development, interesting work and self-actualization) • In theory Y, managers need participative management techniques, decentralized decision making, performance evaluation procedures, job enrichment program.

McGregor: Theory X and Y Theory X Theory Y Theory X – Top down; manager is dictatorial, controlling Theory Y – Bottom up; manager enables, gives responsibility

Herzberg’s two factor theory (1968) • Hygiene needs (physical and psychological context--pay, job security, etc.) • Hygiene needs cause job dissatisfaction when not satisfied, but they does not stimulate job satisfaction. • motivator needs (work itself; intrinsic needs) will result in high motivation once satisfied.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg: Two-Factor Theory high 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 motivators 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 low high hygiene factors

McClelland & Alderfer • McClelland’s (1961) 3 types of motivational needs • Achievement motivation (n-ach) • Authority/power motivation (n-pow) • Affiliation motivation (n-affil) • Alderfer’s (1972) growth, relatedness, and existence needs.

Equity theory by Adams (1965) • Perception of fairness of their work outcomes relative to work inputs • Compare his own outcome-input ratio (outcome/income) with others’ (referents) ratios • Equity; underpayment; overpayment • Barnard’s exchange of incentives and contributions in organizations

Equity Theory Scale perceived balance Input and motivation are reduced when perception of fairness/ equity (outputs) is tipped, i.e. when employee perceives effort is greater than reward

Process Theories • Vroom: Expectancy Theory • Expectancies and dependent variables • Expectancy theory in public organizations • Skinner: Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement • Bandura: Social Learning (cognitive) Theory • Locke: Goal-Setting Theory

Expectancy theory Vroom (1964) • An individual considering an outcome sums up the values of all outcomes that will result from the action, with each outcome weighted by the probability of its occurrence. • Theory draws on the classic utilitarian ideas (maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain) • Integrates elements of needs, equity and reinforcement theories • Individual workers differ in their preferences for outcomes ire materials or social rewards

Expectancy theory Vroom (1964) • Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes/rewards. How desirable each of the outcomes available from a job is to a person • Expectancy: Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about their capabilities. Perception that high levels of effort lead to high performance. • Instrumentality refers to the perception of employees with respect to whether outcomes/rewards will actually result. High performance leads to the attainment of desired outcome.

Expectancy theory Vroom (1964) F= ∑(E ij Vj) F= The force acting under individual to perform act i. E=The expectancy or perceived probability of any effort will lead to an outcome (act i will lead to outcome j) V= The valence of outcome j V j = ∑(V k I jk ) V= Valence of the outcome j I= The instrumentality of the outcome j for attainment of outcome k V= The valence of outcome k

Expectancy theory Vroom (1964) • Valence: Mangers must understand what individuals value (extrinsic and intrinsic). • Expectancy:If expectations are based on confidence and ability, it is important to accurately assess skills and weaknesses. • Instrumentality:Performance requires that managers come through on promises. • Expectancy type questions about relationships between performance and pay, job security, promotion, and incentives often show association with reported work satisfaction and effort.

Operant conditional theory • Operant conditional theory by Skinner (1953) • Operant conditioning, i.e. the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior • the relationship between observable behavior and contingencies of reinforcements • To link the performance of specific behavior to the attainment of specific outcomes • Punishment is less efficient and effective in shaping behavior.

Operant conditional theory • Positive reinforcement (give desired outcome); negative reinforcement (give undesired outcome) • Operant extinction (curtail the performance of dysfunctional behaviors) • Punishment (dangerous, illegal or unethical behaviors to be eliminated immediately) • Positive reinforcement provides the most efficient means of influencing behavior.

Operant conditional theory • Low ratio reinforcement schedule produces rapid acquisition of the behavior but more rapid extinction when the reinforcement stops. • Intermittent reinforcement, especially in highly variable intervals or according to a variable ratio schedule (reinforcement after long varying periods or after varying numbers of occurrences), requires more time for behavior acquisition, but extinction occurs more slowly when the reinforcement seasons.

Social learning theory by Bandura • Developed by Albert Bandura (1978) et al. • Reflects value and limitations of operant conditioning and behavior modification. • Draws from behavior modification, but puts greater emphasis on internal cognitive processes, like goals and a sense of self efficacy. • Gives attention to forms of learning and behavior change that may not be tied to external environment

Social learning theory by Bandura • Individuals learn in ways other than through extra reinforcement, including: • modeling the behavior of others • vicarious experiences • mental rehearsal and imagery • self-management through setting goals for oneself

Goal-setting theory 1 • Theory simply states that difficult goals lead to higher performance than easy goals, no goals, or vague goals. • Goals focus behavior and motivate individuals to achieve desired and states. • Goals maydirect attention, intensify effort, intensify persistence, spark creativity in problem solving • As the value of a goal increases, the commitment to the goal increases.

Goal-setting theory 2 • Commitment to the goals and feedback are also necessary to performance. • Assignment of difficult (challenging; hard but not impossible to attain) goals enhances performance because goals appeal to motive and desire to achieve (Locke and Latham, 1990). • Goals provide a sense of purpose and create standards for evaluating performance . • Participation in goal setting is not clearly linked to higher levels of motivation.

Goal-setting theory 3 • Goal setting works best with management support and requires effective leadership. • People should be committed to goals. The manager should stress that the goals are important (have personal value) and are attainable. • Empower employees to develop strategies and tactics for achieving goals • Beware of goal overload • Mix qualitative and quantitative goals

Goal-setting theory 4 • Assign responsibility for achievement of goals • Feedback stimulates the accomplishment of goals. • The greater the success, the greater the satisfaction. • Paradox: More difficult goals are less likely to be achieved, leaving people unsatisfied; this, in turn, fosters ambition, pushing people to strive to achieve further.

To Enhance Work Motivation • Improved performance appraisal systems. Reforms involving the use of group-based appraisals (ratings for a work group rather than an individual), or appraisals by a member’s peers. • Merit pay and pay-for-performance systems. A wide variety of procedures for linking a person’s pay to his or her performance. • Broadbanding or paybanding pay systems. Pay systems in government and other settings have often had numerous pay grades and pay steps within those grades. A person would move step-by-step up these categories, usually moving only one step per year. Broadbanding systems collapse many of these steps and grades into broader “bands” or ranges of pay. This enables a supervisor to move a well-performing person to a higher pay level, faster.

To Enhance Work Motivation • Bonus and award systems. One-time awards for instances of excellent performance or other achievements. • Profit-sharing and gain-sharing plans. Sharing profits with members of the organization (usually possible only in business organizations, for obvious reasons). Employee stock ownership plans are roughly similar, providing a means of rewarding employees when the organization does well. • Participative management and decision making. These involve a sustained commitment to engage in more communication and sharing of decisions, through teams, committees, task forces, general meetings, open-door policies, and one-to-one exchanges.

To Enhance Work Motivation • Work enhancement: job redesign, job enlargement, and rotation. Usage varies, but job redesign usually means changing jobs to enhance control and interest for the people doing the work. Job enlargement, or “horizontal loading,” involves giving employees a greater variety of tasks and responsibilities at the same skill level. Job restructuring, or “vertical loading,” involves giving employees more influence over decisions normally made by superiors, such as work scheduling, or, more generally, enlarging employees’ sense of responsibility by giving them control of a complete unit of work output (for example, having work teams build an entire car or having caseworkers handle all of the needs of a client). These approaches may involve job sharing and rotation among workers and various team-based approaches.

To Enhance Work Motivation • Quality of Work Life (QWL) programs and Quality Circles (QCs). Organizations of all types have tried QWL, which typically involve efforts to enhance the general working environment of an organization through representative committees, surveys and studies, and other procedures designed to improve the work environment. Quality circles, used successfully in Japanese companies, are teams that focus directly on improving the quality of work processes and products.

Public Management Public Service Motivations Wednesday, June 4, 2014