CHAPTER 26 CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS: OTTOMAN EMPIRE, ISLAMIC HEARTLANDS, AND QING CHINA

1. CHAPTER 26 CIVILIZATIONS IN CRISIS: OTTOMAN EMPIRE, ISLAMIC HEARTLANDS, AND QING CHINA

2. Succession of weak and corrupt rulers (Sultans) within a poorly constructed political and social order weakened the Ottomans. • Power struggles between Janissaries, officials, elite factions • Artisan workers saw declining demand for Turkish goods because of the influx of cheaper Western manufactured goods. • Internal fighting led to loss of territory. • Foreign empires making grabs at outlying territory • Late 1700s: Russia expanded into Caucasus and Crimea. • Greek Revolution of 1820 • Serbian Independence in 1867 • Balkan Wars in 1912-1913 • 1811-1818: Wahabbi Rebellion (strengthen Ottomans through a return to traditional Islam and shariah law) OTTOMAN CRISIS

4. Considered the “Sick Man of Europe” • Managed to stave off total decline through a series of reforms. Styaed in power until 20th century • The Ottomans survived because of divisions between European nations. • The British supported the Ottomans to prevent the Russians from controlling Istanbul (Constantinople). • Reform #1: Modest Reform (18th century) • Sultan Selim III attempted reforms to improve administrative and military efficiency, but angered Janissaries and officials. • Deposed and killed in 1807. • Reform #2: • Sultan Mahmud II overthrew Janissaries with a secret army and European help (1826); utilizes Western models for Tanzimat Reforms. • Reform #3: • Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876): introduced Western influences and a constitution to the empireand facilitated trade. ATTEMPTS AT OTTOMAN REFORM

5. Reforms strengthened the state, but sultans were viewed as barriers to reform. • Western-educated bureaucrats and liberal military officers clashed with sultans and conservatives in the Ottoman court. • Later Ottoman rulers were corrupt; relied on foreign loans to boost economy, but became economically dependent on Europe. • Extraterritoriality: allowed Europeans in foreign cities to live according to European laws, not local laws. • 1878-1908: Sultan Abdul Hamid nullified the constitution and restricted civil liberties. Create order through absolute rule • Young Turk Revolution of 1908: Young Turks (nationalist reform party) overthrew Hamid. • Sultan was retained as a political figurehead and authority on religion only. • Collapse in 1923 after Ottoman involvement in WWI WESTERN INFLUENCE AND COUPS

6. The “Sick Man” Dies • 1908 coup is supported by the military, who introduce many reforms (education, status of women, etc.) but there are immediate problems: • Factional fighting • Outbreak of WWI • Continued subjugation of Arab portions of the empire • Ottoman Empire ends in 1914

7. Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, hoping to eventually destroy British India. • Demonstrated the Muslim vulnerability to European power • 1798: Napoleon defeated the Mamluksin the Battle of the Pyramids. • Europeans’ superior artillery vs. Mamluks’ spears, muskets, and cavalry. Shows Muslim armies are seriously overmatched • 1799: Battle of the Nile (British led by Horatio Nelson); Napoleon retreated and left Egypt under care of generals. • 1801: The British cut off French supply lines; French were forced to end conquest of Egypt. EGYPT’S WESTERN INTRUSIONS

8. After French withdrawal, Muhammad Ali emerged as the khedive (ruler) of Egypt and broke away from Ottoman rule (reigned 1805-1848). • Industrialized with help of European advisers. • Peasants required to grow cotton and wheat to bolster industrialization. • Updated Egyptian military into a Western-style military. • Invaded Syria; threatened Istanbul. • To protect Egyptian industries, Ali placed a tariff on British imports; reversed because of British intervention. • After he died in 1848, Egypt was exposed to European threats. THE FAILURE OF WESTERNIZATION IN EGYPT

9. Ali’s emphasis on cotton production in Egypt made it a single export country. • Ali allied with powerful rural landlords to control the peasants, who became increasingly impoverished by state’s demands • 1869: Suez Canal completed which connected Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. • Egypt now a strategic political location with east commercial and military links to Europe and colonies in Asia and Africa. EUROPEAN INTERVENTION IN EGYPT

10. How to ward off growing power of Europe? • Option #1: borrow science and technology from the West. • Option #2: turn towards Muslim tradition and rational inquiry. Truth could be found in the Qu’ran not in the West. • Indecision harms Muslim ability to ward off European threat. • British and French were aware of growing Egyptian debt and eyed the Suez Canal. • 1882: Many Egyptians supported army officer Ahmad Orabi who led a revolt against khedive. • British crushed Orabi’s rebellionto save khedive, who becomes a puppet of the British. ORABI’S REVOLT (1882)

11. Egypt tried to conquer and rule the Sudan; centered Egyptian administration in Khartoum. • Egyptians resented by the Sudanic nomads. • Muhammad Achmad, the “Mahdi,” became a leader to unite the Sudanese to fight back. • Achmad proclaimed a jihad against the Egyptians and British • Mahdist Revolt results in Sudanese control. • Goals: - purging Islam of its “corrupt” beliefs carried on by the Egyptians – fending off western pressure in the area • 1885: KhalifaAbdallahi took over after Achmad died. • The Mahdists built a strong, expansive state. • Strict society according to Islamic law. • 1896-7: British General Kitchener ended the Mahdist threat. MAHDIST REVOLT IN THE SUDAN (1881-1899)

12. Manchu nomads, living north of Great Wall, overtook the weakened Ming Dynasty. • Leader, Nurhaci, unified many of the Manchu tribes. • 1644: Manchus seized the capital of Beijing and take dynastic name “Qing.” • The Qing maintained much of the political and social systems of the Ming. • Ban on foreign travel and trade lifted • Commercialization and urbanization expanded. • Traditional Chinese society (patriarchy) • Civil service exam QING CHINA (1644-1912)

13. Economy & Society • Conservative approach to both eco. & soc. • Socially…. • Stressed hierarchy • Extended family still the central social unit • Women confined to the household • Economically…. • Lowered taxes, labor demands and improved public works • Attempted to control the landlord class to alleviate peasant burdens • Did NOT exercise much control over the commercial sector (and the # of incoming Europeans)

14. By 18th c., bureaucracy had become corrupt. • Bribery, favoritism, and cheating on civil service exams was rampant. • Qing rulers aimed to alleviate rural distress by lowering taxes and labor demands, but the gap between landowning and peasant classes grew. • Public works projects were not completedor in disrepair. • 1860s: Yellow River flooded the Shandong peninsula and thousands of peasants died of famine and disease. • Food shortages and landlord demands prompted mass migrations westward. CORRUPTION AND SOCIAL DISINTEGRATION

15. British were frustrated by having to pay large amounts of silver for Chinese goods. • To solve this, the British traded Indian opium to the Chinese. • Addiction; loss of Chinese silver • Qing emperor issued edicts: 1) forbid European opium trade; 2) opium is to be confiscated and destroyed. • 1839: First Opium War between Chinese and British; Chinese were defeated. • Treaty of Nanking (1842): Hong Kong is a British colony dedicated to European trade; extraterritoriality rights. • Spheres of Influence: Europeans forcing the Chinese to open trade and diplomatic exchanges, and extend right of extraterritoriality. THE OPIUM WAR (1839-1842; 1856-1860)

16. The Opium War & After • To the Chinese, Europeans were: barbarians, animals, nomads….They did not recognize the complexity & sophistication of an equally advanced society. • Conflicts like the Opium War revealed that the Europeans had stronger, better organized militaries and were not willing to live with an unequal trade balance.

17. Led by Hong Xiuquan who established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with capital in Nanjing • Increased influence of European powers and defeat in Opium War caused widespread dissatisfaction in the Qing. • The Taiping proposed alternatives to the Qing dynasty. • Attack of traditional Chinese culture/elite • Social reform; land redistribution; Christianity • Overall trying to overthrow Qing & Confucianism • The Qing defeated the Taiping. • An estimated 20 million people died. • Self-Strengthening Movement: Qing officials and elite encouraged Western investments and modernization of army. TAIPING REBELLION (1850-1865)

18. First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Qing China vs. Meiji Japan over control of Korea; Qing lose Korea • Dowager Empress Cixi crushed calls for reform. • 1898-1901: The Boxer Rebellion • Peasants create society called “Righteous and Harmonious Fists” • Initially try to destroy Qing and rid China of foreign influences • Once backed by Cixi, work solely to remove foreign power • Put down by Eight-Nation Alliance • Led to greater European control of Chinese affairs BOXER REBELLION (1898-1901)

19. After defeat of Taipings, underground secret societies continued uprisings against the dynasty. • Often, resistance was led by young men who had received Western educations. • 1905: Civil service exams end. • 1911-1912: Republican Revolution toppled the Qing dynasty. • Puyi, last emperor of China, was deposed. FALL OF QING EMPIRE (1912)

20. Global Connection • Ottomans & Qing represent two civilizations thrown into crisis by Western challenge • Islam survives; China does not—WHY? • Muslims had faced Western challenges since the Middle Ages while challenge to China was more sudden • Muslims share many Judeo-Christian cultural aspects while Chinese regarded western culture as ‘barbaric’ • Muslims has many centers to defend (fall of one did not mean fall of all) whereas fall of China meant the whole empire • Muslims could fall back on Islam, Chinese did not have a religious tradition to stabilize them.

21. The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th and 19th centuries can be traced to all of these reasons EXCEPT: Sultans who were weak or inept rulers Frequent defeat of the Ottoman Empire and annexations of its land Religious divisions within Islam Decline in the productivity of peasants and artisans Christian and non-Turkish populations, who resented Turkish rule Let’s Practice

22. C Religious divisions within Islam

23. The most immediate result of the Opium War was The partition of China between European nations The collapse of the Qing dynasty and its replacement The beginning of a powerful reform movement to strengthen China Korea was ceded to Japan China was forced to open its ports to European trade and grant European extraterritoriality Let’s Practice

24. E China was forced to open its ports to European trade and grant European extraterritoriality

25. Socially, the Manchu (Qing) rulers Encouraged innovative organizations such as unions Reinforced much of the Confucian value system, including the family Began to slowly emancipate women Discouraged Manchu elites from adopting Chinese ways Refused to reinstate the Confucian testing system Let’s Practice…

26. B Encouraged innovative organizations such as unions