Essential grammar

1. Essential grammar 重要基礎文法 01 (2011) By Peiling Hsia

2. English – 8 parts of speech八大詞類 • Noun • Pronoun • Adjective / Article • Adverb • Verb • Preposition • Conjunction • Interjection

3. 1. Noun 名詞 A noun is a word that denotes a person, place, or thing. In a sentence, nouns answer the questions who and what. • Proper noun • Common noun : • Collective noun • Countable noun – singular / plural • Noncountable (mass noun)

4. Nouns with Adjectives

5. Noun and Article

6. Count and Noncount Nouns with Adjectives Most of the time, this doesn't matter with adjectives. For example, you can say, "The cat was gray" or "The air was gray." However, the difference between a countable and uncountable noun does matter with certain adjectives, such as "some/any," "much/many," and "little/few.“ Some/Any - countable and uncountable nouns. • There issome water on the floor. • There aresome Mexicans here. • Do you have any food? • Do you have any apples?

7. Much/Many: Much - modifies only uncountable nouns. Many - modifies only countable nouns. • We don't have much time to get this done. • Many Americans travel to Europe. Little/Few: Little - modifies only uncountable nouns. (a little/very little) Few - modifies only countable nouns. • He had little food in the house. • The doctor had little time to think in the emergency room. • There are few doctors in town. • Few students like exams.

8. Other basic rules: A lot of/lots of: A lot of/lots of are informal substitutesfor much and many. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean much and with countable nouns when they mean many. • They have lots of (much) money in the bank. • A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe. • We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer. • We got lots of (much) rain last summer.

9. A little bit of:A little bit of is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun. • There is a little bit of pepper in the soup. • There is a little bit of snow on the ground. Enough: Enough modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. • There is enough money to buy a car. • I have enough books to read.

10. Plenty of:Plenty of modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. • They have plenty of money in the bank. • There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland. No: No modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. • There is no time to finish now. • There are no squirrels in the park.

11. A number of:several of a particular type of thing . • I decided not to go, for a number of reasons. • There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland. Numbers: a number of a particular description. • Small numbers of children are educated at home. • Large numbers of invitations were sent. • Newspapers are produced in vast numbers. Number: an amount or total. • The number of people killed in road accidents fell last month. • There has been an increasing number of cases of the disease. • A small number of children are educated at home.

12. Every: used when referring to all the members of a group of three or more . • The police want to interview every employee about the theft. • The show will be broadcast everyweekday morning between 9 and 10. • We're open every day except Sunday. Each : every thing, person, etc. in a group of two or more, considered separately . • When you run, each foot leaves the ground before the other comes down. • Each of the companies supports a local charity. • We each (= Every one of us) wanted the bedroom with the balcony, so we tossed a coin to decide.

13. Special notes – “each” “every” 「每個~」 • “each” “every” + 單數的名詞 + 動詞也是用單數的語態。 • each + of 可加複數名詞，但後面的動詞是用單數的語態。 Ex: Each of us has a wonderful time. • every 後接日期有可能接複數名詞。 (X): My mother has to visit the hospital every five week. (O): My mother has to visit the hospital every five weeks.

14. Collective noun: Examples: The committee grantsits permission for the artists to place her sculpture in the park. (people as an unit) The committee put their signatures on the document. (all the members in the group need to sign the document “individually”) 整體時被看作單數名詞; 指整體的構成分子時被看作複數名詞。

15. family (1) a group of people who are related to each other, such as a mother, a father, and their children. • I come from a large family. • He hasn't any family. (2)the children of a family • Women shouldn't have to choose between career and family (= having children). • Paul and Alison are hoping to starta family (= have children) soon. • My dad died when we were small so my mum raisedthe family on her own. (3) a pair of adult animals and their babies • We've got a family of squirrels living in our garden.

16. people“人”, ”人們”, ”家人” in general 當 people 指 “人 persons” 或著泛指 “人們”, 或者指特定合 的人以及家裡人時 , 它是個無標記的複數名詞. • There are ten people present. • The streets were crowded with people. • People will laugh at you. • All my people are in India. • Who arethese people? • My wife’s people are staying with us now.

17. people ”民族” people 作”民族”“種族”時,就變 成了規則的可數名詞 (peoplepeoples) • The Chinese area hard-working people. (中華民族是個勤勞的民族 ) • Ireland was inhabited by two peoples. • A people is all the men, women, and children of a particular country or race.(一個民族是指一個國家或種族的所有的男人,女人和兒童.)

18. the people • the large number of ordinary men and women who do not have positions of power in society the people 指一個國家的人民或全世界的人民, 它在 形式上仍是單數,但是它的動詞,根據概念一致原則, 要使用複數. • She claims to be the voice of the people. • The President has lost the support of the people. • He lived for the people and died for the people. • The French nobles oppressed the people.

19. Obama’s Victory Speech at Chicago’s Grant Park • The road ahead will be long. Our climb will be steep. We may not get there in one year or even in one term. But, America, I have never been more hopeful than I am tonight that we will get there. I promise you, we as a peoplewill get there. Nov-05 2008 http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=96624326

20. Question: • Sixty people means a huge party. 主詞 sixty people為複數,其動詞為何是用單數?

21. 2. Pronoun代名詞 A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence. Examples: • She decided to go to a movie. • She planned to ask him for an interview.

22. Relative pronouns General Usage in Defining Clauses Relative pronouns are that, who, whom, whose, which, where, when, and why. They are used to join clauses to make a complex sentence. Relative pronouns are used at the beginning of the subordinate clause which gives some specific information about the main clause. • This is the house that Jack built. • I don't know the day when Jane marries him. • The professor, whom I respect, was tenured.

23. In English, the choice of the relative pronoun depends on the type of clause it is used in. There are two types of clauses distinguished: • defining (restrictive) relative clauses and • non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses.

24. Defining relative clauses (also known as restrictive relative clauses) provide some essential information that explains the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctly and cannot be omitted. Defining clauses are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT separated by a comma from the main clause.

25. Some special uses of relative pronouns in defining clauses that / who Referring to people, both that and who can be used. That may be used to referring to someone in general: • He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down. • I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago. However, when a particular person is being spoken about, who is preferred: • The old lady who lives next door is a teacher. • The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at the party.

26. that / which There several cases when that is more appropriate than which: • After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing): • The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person. • Marrying a congressman is all (that) she wants.

27. 2. After verbs that answer the question WHAT? For example, say, suggest, state, declare, hope, think, write, etc. In this case, the whole relative clause functions as the object of the main clause: • Some people say (that) success is one percent of talent and ninety-nine percent of hard work. • The chairmanstatedat the meeting (that) his company is part of a big-time entertainment industry.

28. 3. After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree: • This is the funniest story (that) I have ever read! - that used as the object 4. After ordinal numbers, e.g., first, second, etc.: • The first draft (that) we submitted was really horrible. - that used as the object 5. If the verb in the main clause is a form of BE: • This is a claim that has absolutely no reason in it. - that used as the subject

29. 3. Adjective An adjective is a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may precede nouns, or they may appear after be verbs (am, are, is) 形容詞的作用:

30. Article冠詞 Articles include a, an,andthe. They precede a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence. Examples: • They wanted a house with a big porch. • He bought the blue sweater on sale.

31. 非人稱形容詞 • “非人稱形容詞”不能用人當主詞 • 通常以虛主詞 it 當主詞

32. 有 a 形式的形容詞 只能作“敘述使用” Ex. The girl is afraid.. She is an afraidgirl. X The fish is still alive. She is awake

33. Special notes: • 複合形容詞 • 動詞可變成形容詞 1. 以現在分詞的形式 (+ ing) A rolling stone gathers no moss. 2. 以過去分詞的形式 (+ ed或不規則變化) I will accept a written apology.

34. 副詞的種類 4. Adverb Just as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify, or further describe, verbs. Adverbs may also modify adjectives. (Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly.) • 時間副詞 • 地方副詞 • 頻率副詞 • 狀態副詞 • 程度副詞 • before, early, now • here, at the station • always, never, often • well, loudly, fast • very, much, too

36. 5. Verb 動詞 • 依句型分類 • 依功能分類 • 依詞型變化分類 Transitive及物動詞 Intransitive 不及物動詞 Main verb 實義動詞 Auxiliary Verb 助動詞 Regular 規則動詞 Irregular 不規則動詞

37. 6. Preposition介係詞 Prepositions work in combination with a noun or pronoun to create phrases that modify verbs, nouns/pronouns, or adjectives. Prepositional phrases convey a spatial, temporal, or directional meaning. 1. Prepositions of Place and location 2. Prepositions of Time 3. Prepositions of Direction / Movement 4. Prepositions of Manner 5. Prepositions of Purpose 6. Prepositions of Materials 7. Prepositions of Similarity 8. Prepositions of Agent / Source 9. Prepositions of Comparison 10. Prepositions of Measurement

38. (1) Prepositions of Place and location地方或位置的介詞 • In • On • Over • Under • underneath • Above • Below • By • Beside • Next to • In front of • Around • Between • Among • At • Near • Behind • before http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUNYx8LxkL0&feature=related(prep song)

39. at / on / in(地方)

40. (2) Prepositions of Time • Specific time – between, by, from – to, till, within, at, on, in, before, after • General time – at, by, in, on • Length of time – at, during, since, through, for

41. at / on / in(時間)

42. onto / on to / on (3) Prepositions of Direction / Movement • examples: Ann climbed onto the roof. He jumped onto the horse. The burglar climbed on to the roof. ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surface

43. into / in to / in IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the interior of a volume With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable except when the preposition is the last word or occurs directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency. • The patient went into the doctor's office. The patient went in. • Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday. • Our new neighbors moved in yesterday. • Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into? • Now what sort of trouble is she in?

44. (4) Prepositions of Manner • With – please carry this box with care. • In – the man shouted at the driver in anger. • By – you have to learn your multiplication tables by heart. (5) Prepositions of Purpose • for – The box is used for a project. • On – They went to New York on business. So that - They work hard so that the project would be ready in time. In order to - In order to become a champion, you have to word hard. For the purpose of - He got a cat for the purpose of catching the mice.

45. (6) Prepositions of Materials • Of – The desk is make of wood. • From – Wine is made from grapes. • In – Can you answer it in English? (7) Prepositions of Similarity • As – We use the water jug as a vase to put the flower in. • Like – Your hands are cold like ice.

46. (8)Prepositions of Agent / Source • By –The concert was organized by Tom. • From – They got the answer from the encyclopedia. (9)Prepositions of Comparison • To – We won the game by 5 to 3. I prefer oranges to apples • With – He compared his camera with mine. • By – He is taller than I by 2 inches. (10)Prepositions of Measurement • Of – Can I have a glass of milk, please?

47. 7. Conjunction連接詞 A conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses, or sentences, together. • Coordinating conjunctions (對等) • Subordinate conjunctions (附屬) • Correlative conjunctions (相關) • Conjunctive adverbs (連接詞副詞)

48. Coordinating conjunctions 對等連接詞 and, but, or, for, so, yet, nor (X): Enrichment may be particularly important when the number of organisms is small, for detection of asymptomatic carriers, orwhen specimens are delayed in transit. (O): Enrichment may be particularly important when the number of organisms is small, for detection of asymptomatic carriers, orfor specimens delayed in transit.

49. (X): These mice became dehydrated, lost weight, and four mice died. (O): These mice became dehydrated and lost weight, and four mice died. (X): The mixture was heated, shaken, centrifuged, and the supernatant fluid frozen. (O): The mixture was heated, shaken, and centrifuged, and the supernatant fluid was frozen.

50. 注意：在下表中，若干附屬連接詞 -- after, before, since -- 也是介系詞，但做連接詞時，它們被用來引導一個子句，並使其後的子句附屬於句子中的獨立元素。 Subordinate conjunctions 附屬連接詞 (有時稱為從屬字) 位在附屬子句的開頭來使附屬子句與主要子句之間建立關係，並使附屬子句變成其意義仰賴主要子句而定的句子元素。