Investigation Techniques

1. How to Investigate a Given System Investigation Techniques

2. The System Analysis Phase : PARIS Model Planning the approach Set objectives. Identify constraints. Agree on Terms of Reference. Prepare for research. Ask questions and Collecting Data Fact-finding activities. Recording the information Record facts and details about current and required systems. Records should be clear and unambiguous. Use diagrams and models. Interpret information Understand the logical system. Understand client�s requirements. Specify Requirements Prepare a selection of options for the development of the new system. After the client decides, a detailed functional specification is prepared for the designers. Planning is vital: the success of the systems analysis phase of a project depends on the thoroughness and care taken in the planning phase. Part of the Asking questions and Collecting Data phase is done using the Investigation Techniques that we will discuss soon. Planning is vital: the success of the systems analysis phase of a project depends on the thoroughness and care taken in the planning phase. Part of the Asking questions and Collecting Data phase is done using the Investigation Techniques that we will discuss soon.

3. SCOPE: Terms of Reference The terms of reference include the user�s objectives and are agreed upon at the initial stage of System Analysis. It includes the following: System Boundary � the area of the organization under investigation. Constraints � factors that restrict the study or the solution. E.g. budget. Objectives � expectations of client. Permission � who is responsible for the supervision of the project and who has the authority to grant permissions when needed. End Products � a description of the deliverable or end product of the investigation.

4. Investigation Techniques

5. Investigation Objectives Research core and peripheral components, key and secondary actors in the system List the key persons who are the contacts for all the above Define current core components, deficiencies and strengths Define what are they aiming to achieve (scope) Establish exactly which core systems we are looking to replace Establish which new functionality may be considered Agree ownership of the data and processes Define the data needed; processes and rules PoliciesDefine the data needed; processes and rules Policies

6. Organizational Knowledge Understanding of how organizations work Knowledge of specific functions and procedures of organization and department How work officially gets done Internal policies Competitive and Regulatory Environment Organizational Strategies and Tactics

7. System Analyst Approach Impertinence � ask questions about everything Impartiality Relaxing of constraints � Assume anything is possible and eliminate the infeasible. Attention to details Reframing.

8. Investigation Techniques Interviewing Questionnaires Document Analysis User Observation JAD � Joint Application Design

9. 1. Interviews

10. Interviewing Interviewing is an important method for collecting data on information system requirements Interviews reveal information about Interviewee opinions Interviewee feelings About the current state of the system Organizational and personal goals Formal and Informal business procedures During interviewing you gather facts, opinions and speculation and observe body language, emotions and other signs of what people want and how they assess current systemsDuring interviewing you gather facts, opinions and speculation and observe body language, emotions and other signs of what people want and how they assess current systems

11. Interviews - Six Basic Steps Selecting Interviewees Set objectives Set up the interview � fix an appointment Prepare for the Interview Conduct the Interview Post-Interview Follow-up

12. 1. Select Interviewees Interview everyone is not feasible Find the key personnel System Owners (director, head of the department: decision makers) Get an overview of the company Get an access to interview information holders Information Holders (storage manager for stock info, HR manager for recruitment) System Users

13. 2. Set Objectives Objectives of an interview: Which procedures are used by interviewee? How are these procedures used by interviewee? What is his opinion on those procedures? Does he deviate from those procedures?

14. 3. Set up the interview Set up an appointment Time and Place Inform of Reason for Interview Inform of Areas of Discussion Context

15. 4. Interview Preparation Steps Design Questions Prepare General Interview Guide List of Question Time Allocated Anticipated Answers and Follow-Ups Confirm Areas of Knowledge Set Priorities in Case of Time Shortage Interview Guide/checklist: Interviewer/Interviewee Objectives Information about interviewee Time Limits List of specific questionsInterview Guide/checklist: Interviewer/Interviewee Objectives Information about interviewee Time Limits List of specific questions

18. Types of Questions Eight benefits of open-ended questions 1 Putting the interviewee at ease 2 Allowing the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee's vocabulary Reflect education, values, attitudes, and beliefs 3 Providing richness of detail 4 Revealing avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped 5 More interesting for the interviewee 6 Allows more spontaneity 7 Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer 8 Useful if the interviewer is unprepared The five drawbacks include 1 May result in too much irrelevant detail 2 Possibly losing control of the interview 3 May take too much time for the amount of useful information gained 4 Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared 5 Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a "fishing expedition Six benefits of closed questions are 1 Saving interview time 2 Easily comparing interviews 3 Getting to the point 4 Keeping control of the interview 5 Covering a large area quickly 6 Getting to relevant data Four drawbacks of closed interview questions include 1 Boring for the interviewee 2 Failure to obtain rich detail 3 Missing main ideas 4 Failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee Eight benefits of open-ended questions 1 Putting the interviewee at ease 2 Allowing the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee's vocabulary Reflect education, values, attitudes, and beliefs 3 Providing richness of detail 4 Revealing avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped 5 More interesting for the interviewee 6 Allows more spontaneity 7 Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer 8 Useful if the interviewer is unprepared The five drawbacks include 1 May result in too much irrelevant detail 2 Possibly losing control of the interview 3 May take too much time for the amount of useful information gained 4 Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared 5 Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a "fishing expedition Six benefits of closed questions are 1 Saving interview time 2 Easily comparing interviews 3 Getting to the point 4 Keeping control of the interview 5 Covering a large area quickly 6 Getting to relevant data Four drawbacks of closed interview questions include 1 Boring for the interviewee 2 Failure to obtain rich detail 3 Missing main ideas 4 Failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee

19. Designing Interview Questions Unstructured interview Broad, Roughly Defined Information Structured interview More Specific Information A completely structured interview is planned and the plan is strictly followed Closed questions are the basis of structured interviews An unstructured interview is conversationalA completely structured interview is planned and the plan is strictly followed Closed questions are the basis of structured interviews An unstructured interview is conversational

20. 5. Conduct the interview Introduce yourself Describe the project Explain your objectives Ask questions in order Listen carefully - practice engaged listening Summarize the main points Explain the next course of action Do not hint on answers List carefully Do not set expectations Seek perspectivesDo not hint on answers List carefully Do not set expectations Seek perspectives

21. Questioning Strategies There are three basic ways of structuring interviews: 1 Pyramid, starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or seem reluctant to address the topic 2 Funnel, starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions. Provides an easy, non threatening way to begin an interview 3 Diamond, starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed questions. Is useful in keeping the interviewee's interest and attention through a variety of questionsThere are three basic ways of structuring interviews: 1 Pyramid, starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or seem reluctant to address the topic 2 Funnel, starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions. Provides an easy, non threatening way to begin an interview 3 Diamond, starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed questions. Is useful in keeping the interviewee's interest and attention through a variety of questions

22. 6. Interview Report

23. Post-Interview Follow-Up Prepare Interview Notes Prepare Interview Report Look for Gaps and New Questions

24. 2. Questionnaires

25. Questionnaires Questionnaire is an information-gathering technique that uses and allows responses to be quantified Questionnaires survey people�s: Attitudes Beliefs Behavior Characteristics Are used to determine how widespread or limited a response expressed in an interview really is. Interviews can be time-consuming and expensive -> only a limited number of people can be reached and contacted Questionnaires are not expensive to administer they do not yield as much information quick � gather information from many people in a relatively short time Less bias in interpreting their results Not easy to detect people�s feelings Unambiguous questions might not be solvedInterviews can be time-consuming and expensive -> only a limited number of people can be reached and contacted Questionnaires are not expensive to administer they do not yield as much information quick � gather information from many people in a relatively short time Less bias in interpreting their results Not easy to detect people�s feelings Unambiguous questions might not be solved

26. When to Use Questionnaires Questionnaires are valuable if Organization members are widely dispersed Many members are involved with the project Exploratory work is needed Problem solving prior to interviews is necessary Administering questionnaires: - on paper - in person � a structured interview - over the phone - diskette Less expensive if the interviewees can answer it alone. They are distributed simultaneously and therefore are quicker USES: Grade system Choosing of functions Recommend a system solution based on a particular software packageAdministering questionnaires: - on paper - in person � a structured interview - over the phone - diskette Less expensive if the interviewees can answer it alone. They are distributed simultaneously and therefore are quicker USES: Grade system Choosing of functions Recommend a system solution based on a particular software package

27. Steps of Questionnaires STEPS Selecting participants Using samples of the population Designing the questionnaire Careful question selection Administering the questionnaire Working to get good response rate Questionnaire follow-up Send results to participants

28. Selecting Participants It is important that the selected group of people are representative of all users. Methodology of choosing people: Those convenient to sample A random group A purposeful sample � people who satisfy certain criteria A stratified sample � choosing a random set from each category

29. Good Questionnaire Design

30. Good questionnaires questions Consider How often do you back up your computer files? How often do you back up your computer files stored on the hard disk on the PC you use for the majority of your work time? Frequently Sometimes Hardly at all Frequently (at least once per week) Sometimes (from one to three times per month) Hardly at all (once per month or less) Never Ambiguous choices Computer files: what type of computer files Rephrasing: How often do you back up your computer files stored on the hard disk on the PC you use for the majority of your work time? Frequently (at least once per week) Sometimes (from one to three times per month) Hardly at all (once per month or less) Never Ambiguous choices Computer files: what type of computer files Rephrasing: How often do you back up your computer files stored on the hard disk on the PC you use for the majority of your work time? Frequently (at least once per week) Sometimes (from one to three times per month) Hardly at all (once per month or less) Never

31. Measurement Scales Scales are devised to Measure the attitudes or characteristics of respondents There are four different forms of measurement scales: Nominal (male/female) Ordinal (child/teenager/adult) Interval (30-50, 50-70, 70-90) Ratio (0-10,10-20, 20-30 min)

32. Interviews vs. Questionnaires� Characteristic Information richness Time Expense Follow-up and probing Confidentiality Involvement of subject Potential audience

33. 3. Observation

34. Observation A useful if limited technique, can help identify tasks actually being performed identify methods and tools being used produce �day in the life of� logs and descriptions auditing the results of other investigation techniques - is what you know correct? People are not always reliable � many times they don not have a completely accurate appreciation of what they do or how they do it People are not always reliable � many times they don not have a completely accurate appreciation of what they do or how they do it

35. Observation: benefits and drawbacks Advantages Users/managers often don�t remember everything they do Checks validity of information gathered other ways Problems Time consuming Establishing when to observe a job / area Behaviors change when people are watched Careful not to ignore periodic activities Weekly � Monthly � Annual See only one dimension - need to ask questions

36. 4. Document Analysis

37. Document Analysis Provides clues about existing �as-is� system Typical documents to analyze General Organization mission Business Plan Organization charts Specific Work Procedures for Individuals or Groups Business Forms Business Reports Reports from Previous Organizational Studies Organizational Mission Statements, Business plans Organization charts Business policy manuals Job descriptions Internal and external correspondence Reports Prior organizational studiesOrganizational Mission Statements, Business plans Organization charts Business policy manuals Job descriptions Internal and external correspondence Reports Prior organizational studies

38. Document Analysis Find the information about: Problems with existing system Opportunities to meet new needs if certain information or information processing would be available Organizational direction Titles and names of key personnel who have interest in relevant existing system Data, rules for processing data Look for user additions to documents Look for unused data, procedures Others : Irregular activities Reasons of current setupOthers : Irregular activities Reasons of current setup

39. Examples of Documents Work Procedure Describes how a particular job or task is performed Business Form Used for all types of business functions Report generated by current system Description of current system What type of information can be found in such a document? Work Procedure Data and information used and created in the process of performing the job Interaction with other departments Business Procedure Data Flow Organizational data � data characteristics used by application Report Work backwards from the information on the report to the data that must have been necessary to generate it Current system Flowcharts/ data dictionaries, manuals Work Procedure Data and information used and created in the process of performing the job Interaction with other departments Business Procedure Data Flow Organizational data � data characteristics used by application Report Work backwards from the information on the report to the data that must have been necessary to generate it Current system Flowcharts/ data dictionaries, manuals

40. Problems Duplication of effort An organization might need reorganization before redesigning an IS. Missing procedures. Out-dated procedures. Formal procedures may contradict information collected from individuals. FORMAL SYSTEM � the documented system INFORMAL SYSTEM � The way the organization actually works These develop because of inadequacies in formal procedures and individual work habits and preferencesFORMAL SYSTEM � the documented system INFORMAL SYSTEM � The way the organization actually works These develop because of inadequacies in formal procedures and individual work habits and preferences

41. Observation vs. Document Analysis� Characteristic Information richness Time Expense Follow-up and probing Confidentiality Involvement of subject Potential audience

42. 5. Joint Application Development (JAD)

43. Joint Application development (JAD): Key Ideas JAD � Joint Application Development Allows project managers, users, and developers to work together May reduce scope creep by 50% Avoids requirements being too specific or too vague Primary Aim � collect requirements simultaneously. Introduced by IBM in 1970s as a means to bring together key users, managers, and system analysts involved in the analysis of a current system. Takes form of meeting sessions Can help resolve conflicts, or find reason why it cannot be resolvedIntroduced by IBM in 1970s as a means to bring together key users, managers, and system analysts involved in the analysis of a current system. Takes form of meeting sessions Can help resolve conflicts, or find reason why it cannot be resolved

44. When to Use JAD JAD may be used when Users are restless and want something new The organizational culture supports joint problem-solving behaviors Analysts forecast an increase in the number of ideas using JAD Personnel may be absent from their jobs for the length of time required

45. JAD Participants JAD session leader Users Managers Sponsor System Analysts Scribe IS Staff Session Leader � trained in group management and facilitation as well as in systems analysis Sets agenda Remains neutral on issues and does not contribute ideas or opinions Concentrates on keeping to agenda Resolves conflicts and disagreements Users Understand the day-to-day procedures of the system Managers Give insight into new organizational directions Motivations and organizational impacts of systems Support for requirements Sponsor High level management; usually attends only the first or last session System Analysts Active participation is limited; they are there to learn Scribe takes notes IS Staff - Contribute ideas on the technical aspects, limitations and feasibilitySession Leader � trained in group management and facilitation as well as in systems analysis Sets agenda Remains neutral on issues and does not contribute ideas or opinions Concentrates on keeping to agenda Resolves conflicts and disagreements Users Understand the day-to-day procedures of the system Managers Give insight into new organizational directions Motivations and organizational impacts of systems Support for requirements Sponsor High level management; usually attends only the first or last session System Analysts Active participation is limited; they are there to learn Scribe takes notes IS Staff - Contribute ideas on the technical aspects, limitations and feasibility

46. JAD Meeting Room Setting U-Shaped seating Away from distractions Whiteboard/flip chart Prototyping tools e-JAD

47. JAD Meeting Room

48. The JAD Session Tends to last 5 to 10 days over a three week period Prepare questions as with interviews Formal agenda and groundrules Facilitator activities Keep session on track Help with technical terms and jargon Record group input Help resolve issues Post-session follow-up

49. JAD Agenda Introduce team members and discuss objectives Explain reason for project Present outline of issues to be investigated Open discussion to identify specific issues Discuss system requirements Develop models

50. JAD Agenda (continued) Present issues to be addressed Review results Decide on main issues Document all topics Summarize JAD session Prepare report for all JAD members

51. Benefits of JAD The potential benefits of using JAD are Time is saved, compared with traditional interviewing Rapid development of systems Improved user ownership of the system Creative idea production is improved

52. Drawbacks of Using JAD Potential drawbacks of using JAD are JAD requires a large block of time be available for all session participants If preparation is incomplete, the session may not go very well If the follow-up report is incomplete, the session may not be successful The organizational skills and culture may not be conducive to a JAD session

53. 6. Documenting the Investigation Results

54. Documentation The need for recording the facts Keeping accurate records is essential Basic rule: write it down Guidelines for good documentation Record information as soon as possible Use the simplest recording method Ensure that your work is understandable Organize your documentation material Consider a narrative list with simple statements

55. Selection Criteria� Type of Information � what type of information are we after? Depth of information Breadth of information Integration of information User Involvement Cost

56. Selecting the Appropriate Techniques