Anne S. Tsui Arizona State University Peking University Xi’an Jiaotung University International Association for Chinese

1. Scientific Process and Research Design Anne S. Tsui Arizona State University Peking University Xi’an Jiaotung University International Association for Chinese Management Research Management and Organization Review

2. Topics of this Session • The scientific process • Types of empirical studies • Purposes of research design • Contribution to global management knowledge • Research ethics and IACMR values

3. Readings for this session Required readings: Wallace, Walter. 1971. The Logic of science in sociology. Chicago: Aldine, pp. 11-25. IACMR Statement of “Commitment to Excellent” Tsui, A.S. 2006. Contextualization in Chinese management research. Management and Organization Review, 2(1): 1-13. Supplemental readings: Tsui, A.S., Jone L. Pearce, Lyman W. Porter, and Angela M. Tripoli. 1997. "Alternative Approaches to the Employee-Organization Relationship: Does Investment in Employees Pay Off?” Academy of Management Journal, 40(5): 1089-1121. Xiao, Z.X. & Tsui, A. S. 2007. “Where brokers may not work: The culture contingency of social capital”. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53: 1-31. Yan, A. & Gray. B. 1994. Bargaining power, management control, and performance in the United States-China joint ventures: A comparative case study. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 1478-1517.

4. Four sources of knowledge or truth • Mythical • Authoritative • Logical • Scientific

5. Goal of Science:Seek truth or create knowledge • Science is the pursuit of truth, of explanation, prediction, and control a phenomenon. • Truth obtained from the scientific method contains both logic and evidence that are consistent with each other. • Science is about the creation of knowledge, not the application of knowledge • Science cannot settle debate about values (good or bad, right or wrong, e.g. stem cell research) - objectivity • Ultimate goal of science is to better the human condition

6. Methodology The conduct of scientific inquiry • Methodology is the science of finding out knowledge (truth). • The standards for determining truth is rigor in logic and methods • The scientific community determines the standards of rigor and professional competence. • Each scientist is accountable to the scientific community for adhering to standards of professional competence and norms. • The visible part of our scientific conduct and results is “reconstructed logic” • The ethics of science is in the conduct of the scientist.

7. Reality (Epistemology)Three views in social sciences • Premodern: Only one reality, no individual experience matters or allowed. • Modern: There is an objective reality (e.g., the temperature) but we have different subjective experience of it (e.g., warm, cold). Agreement in subjective experiences could indicate objective reality. • Postmodern: No objective reality, only images of reality or subjective experiences, and all are true. Agreement is neither necessary or desirable to define reality.

8. Normal Sciencebased on the modern view of reality • Normal science is empirical science – data, evidences or observations are necessary to support theory. • Determination of significant fact, matching of facts with theory, and articulation of theory – basic paradigm of normal science that we accept. • Research based on shared paradigm is committed to the same rules and standards for scientific practice. • That commitment and the apparent consensus it produces are both the genesis and the continuation of a research tradition. • Paradigms involve different assumptions of truth or reality – normal science is based on a modern view of reality.

9. The Domain of Organization and Management Research Inter-firm level: firm to firm, firm to environment Firm level: Strategy, structure, culture, process Group level: process, structure, dynamics Individual level: attitudes, behavior, decision, perception Cross-level: firm group individual firm individual individual group firm

10. Commonly Used Research Methods in Management • Survey Research （调查研究） • Laboratory experiments (实验室研究） • Quasi experiments （准实验） • Secondary data design (二手数据分析） • Qualitative and case methods (定性和个案研究）

11. Scientific Research Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural or social phenomena (using commonly accepted methodology) that either (a) is guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed (true) relations among such phenomena, or b) results in theory and propositions about the possible (true) relationships among such phenomena.

12. Two Types of Empirical Research • Theory testing empirical research • Surveys (interview, mail, internet, phone) • Experiments (university setting) • Quasi experiments (university or company) • Secondary data (financial, operational, personnel) • Theory building empirical research • Qualitative research (interview, observation, text) • Case methods (interviews, text, secondary data)

13. A Simplified Scientific Research Processand Types of Research 1. Research Question 研究问题 Deductive research 演绎研究 4. The empirical study实证研究 2. Literature review文献回顾 Inductive research 归纳研究 Theoretical research 理论研究 3. Theory and Hypotheses 理论和假设 Descriptive research

14. Elements of the Scientific Process Theories Concept formation Propositions Induction 形成概念、假设, 归纳 Logical Deduction 演绎逻辑 Logical Inference 逻辑推理 Empirical Generalization 实证概括 Accept or reject Hs Hypotheses 假设 Tests of hypotheses Measurement, sample summarization, parameter estimation Research Design, instrumentation, scaling, sampling Observations From W.L. Wallace, The Logic of Science in Sociology, Figure 1

15. The Scientific Process - Review Curiosity or puzzle Deductive Design Yes Research Question Theory? Observation Inductive Design No Literature review

16. The Truth @@@###@@# • Research is “messy”. • The “reconstructed story” does not reveal the “messiness” in the “construction process”. • Research is “perseverance” through iterations of induction and deduction • Thomas Edison – 2000 times before he succeeded – 2000 step journey

17. Research design: Purpose 1 - variance control • Systematic variance系统变异 • Extraneous variance外生变异 • Error variance误差变异 A good research design should: • maximize systematic variance, • control extraneous variance, and • minimize error variance

18. Approaches to variance control • Maximize systematic variance • Through good experimental control • Through a strong theory • Through systematic sampling • Control extraneous variance • Through randomization or matching of subjects • Through including meaningful control variables • Minimize error variance • Through controlled conditions • Through valid measurement

19. Variance Control in EOR study (Tsui, et al 1997, AMJ) • Systematic: Independent variable (EOR) • Sample selection – multiple industries (5), multiple firms (10) – 85 jobs • Measurement of I.V. – 4 types at the job level • QSC – 31%, UI – 18%, OI – 18%, MI – 33% • Extraneous: Control variables • individual, job, company – 8 total • Error: • Precision in measurement (EFA and CFA)

20. Variance Control in IJV control study (Yan & Gray, 1994, AMJ) • Systematic: Independent variable (Management Control) • Sample selection – theoretical sampling using criteria of IJV age, size, industries, ownership (4). • Measurement or data – interviews and archives • Extraneous: • Through sampling – match of age, foreign country, etc. • Error: • Triangulation of data from multiple sources

21. Variance control in social capital study (Xiao & Tsui, 2007, ASQ) • Systematic variance in the IV – industry experts nominate firms that vary on commitment • Extraneous variance – through 9 control variables • Error variance – through valid measurement

22. Research Design: Purpose 2 - Enhance Validity Validity is the probable truth or falsity of an assertion or inference. Four types of validity: • Construct validity（构想效度） • Present when measure produces results consistent with alternative (valid) measures of same construct • Internal validity（内部效度） • Absence of alternative explanations • External validity（外部效度） • Present when control variables do not interact with causal variables, i.e., results would hold at other times, in other settings, and for other individuals • Statistical conclusion validity（统计推论效度） • Significant presence of co-variation between variables

23. Construct Validity - Does the variable measure what it purports to measure? • Content validity（内容效度） • When the measure is absent of deficiency or contamination • Criterion-related validity（效标关联效度） • When the measure relates to other constructs as expected • Convergent validity（会聚效度） • When the measure relates to other measures of the same construct • Discriminant validity（区分效度） • When the measure does not relate to other constructs as expected.

24. Construct validity in EOR study (Tsui et al., 1997, AMJ) • 1 independent and 7 dependent variables • Assess internal consistency of multiple items for the same construct (alpha = .76 to .96) • Factor analysis to ensure that items load on the intended factor (CFA  discriminant validity) • Agreement between multiple assessment of EOR dimensions in the same job (ANOVA F, R-2 = .33 and .50 for the two dimensions)

25. Construct validity in IJV study (Yan & Gray, 1994, AMJ) • Triangulation of data from multiple sources • Replication of discovered constructs across cases • Case examples to illustrate constructs

26. Construct validity in the social capital study (Xiao & Tsui, 1997, ASQ) • 3 main constructs: structural holes, high commitment organization, career success • 2 of the 3 are based on current measures • High commitment – firm level construct measured at the individual level (n=88, 117, 102, 128 employees in four firms) • EFA, Rwg=.83 to .84 (4 firms), ICC1=.14, ICC2=.95

27. Internal Validity: Confidence in inference, absence of alternative explanations • Strong statistical validity • Strong theory (internal validity) • Strong controls (extraneous variance) • Valid measurement (construct validity) • Appropriate sample (external validity) • Strong inference of causation (internal validity) • No artificial covariance due to design or attribution

28. Internal validity of EOR study(Tsui et al., 1997, AMJ) • Strong theoretical foundation • No serious common method variance problem • Inclusion of 8 control variables • Construct validity of EOR measure – only 7 items (3 for contribution and 4 for inducement) - content deficiency?

29. Internal validity in IJV study(Yan & Gray, 1994, AMJ) • Replication of relationships in different cases • Consistency of patterns across cases • Coders should be unaware of the initial model or hypotheses • Competing explanations (e.g., IJV changes) are incorporated into the revised model

30. Internal validity in the social capital study (Xiao & Tsui, 1997, ASQ) • Controlling for reverse causality • Career data (DV) collected 6 months after IV • Networks ties within performance period excluded • Using 9 control variables that may also influence the dependent variable • 3 ways to test the moderating hypothesis • Subgroup analysis • Interaction of firm level commitment score • Interaction of individual level commitment score

31. Contributing to Global Management Knowledge (how to publish in international journals) • Address an interesting and important “puzzle” • Contribute to a “current conversation” • Connect to current theories and constructs • Use current normal science method • Select a type of international management research • Engage in appropriate “contextualization”

32. The “Puzzle” Asking interesting questions “Uninteresting” questions in any study: • Obvious questions • Irrelevant questions • Absurd questions • Definitional questions • Affirmation questions “Uninteresting” Chinese studies: • Replicating a published study • Uncritical application of an existing theory • Affirmation of similarities to Western samples • Outside-in and literature-driven approach in selecting problems or research questions “What to study in Chinese Management research” Tsui, Zhao, and Abrahamson, MOR3.2 (Davis, 1971)

33. The “Conversation” (Huff, 1999) • What are the old and new topics in the conversation? • What are the current debates? • How familiar are current conversationalists about your topic and context (sample)? • How to make the connection to the unfamiliar? • Why should “they” listen to you?

34. Connect to Current Theories • Apply current theories • Extend or modify • Create and connect • Making the novel appear familiar • Making the familiar appear novel • Borrow and return something better • Vision limited by borrowed lens Whetten, 2002; 2008

35. Contextualization and type of global management knowledge (Tsui, 2004)

36. Use of Current Methods • Meet criteria of validity – construct, internal, external • Contextualization of measurement and data collection procedure • Develop new methods of data collection, measurement, or analyses to supplement current methods

37. Contextualization (Tsui, 2006) • The Phenomena – from “outside in” to “inside out” • The Theory – from “application” to “creation” • The Measurement – from “translation” to “indigenization” • The Methodology – from “sharpening old tools” to “developing new instruments”

38. Types of international management research • Pure international – studies of management in a multinational context • Comparative or cross-cultural management – studies of the behavior or decisions of firms or of individuals within firms across different cultural/national contexts • Country specific or indigenous management – studies of firm or individual behavior within a nation/culture Tsui, Nifadker & Ou, 2007, JOM; Werner, 2002, JOM

39. IACMR Commitment to Excellence Research Code of Ethics • Research integrity • Journal submission policy • Respect for research participants • Reviewer and editor responsibilities • Professional interaction and exchange • Conference participation • IACMR member responsibility

40. IACMR Source of Inspiration 灵感之源 Spirit of Service 奉献精神 Commitment to Excellence 追求卓越

41. References Academy of Management Journal award winning papers (book) Administrative Science Quarterly award winning papers (book) IACMR Statement of “Commitment to Excellent” on www.iacmr.org Babbie, Earl R. 2004, 10th edition. The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadswroth/Thomson Learning. Davis, Murray S. 1971. That is interesting! Phil. Soc. Sci., 309-344. Huff, Anne. 1999. Writing for scholarly publications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kaplan, Abraham. 1964. The conduct of inquiry. San Francisco: Chandler. Kuhn, Thomas. 1996. The structure of scientific revolution, 3rd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Popper, Karl R. 1968, 2nd edition. The logic of scientific discovery. New York: Harper. Tsui, A.S. 2004 . Contributing to global management knowledge: A case for high quality indigenous research. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21: 491-513. Tsui, A.S. 2006. Contextualization in Chinese management research. Management and Organization Review, 2(1): 1-13. Tsui, A.S., Nifadkar, S. & Ou, Y. 2007. Cross-national cross-cultural organizational behavior research: Advances, gaps, and recommendations. Journal of Management, 33(3): 426-478. Tsui, A.S., Zhao, SM & Abrahamson, 2007. “What to study in Chinese management research. Management and Organization Review, 3(2): 1:171-181. Wallace, Walter. 1971. The Logic of science in sociology. Chicago: Aldine, pp. 11-25.

42. Wish you research success!