Aggressive Driving - Definitions

1. Aggressive Driving - Definitions • Aggressive Driving = “any driving behaviour that intentionally… endangers others psychologically, physically, or both” • more of a traffic offense • e.g., giving finger, cutting someone off • Road Rage = “assaultive behaviour with the intent of bodily harm and possible homicide” • more of a criminal offense • a more extreme form of aggressive driving • e.g., chasing, forcing someone off the road, shooting at others • Assertive Driving = unsafe driving practices without the intent to harm, usually due to self-oriented motivations • e.g., speeding or weaving between lanes because late

2. Prevalence of Aggressive Driving • Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) received up to 500 telephone calls per week complaining about aggressive driving behaviour (Mitchell, 1997). • 90% of American Automobile Association members reported witnessing an aggressive driving incident in the last year (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2000). • 65% of Canadians considered driver aggression to be a serious or extremely serious problem (Traffic Injury Research Foundation, 2001, 2006).

3. Prevalence of Aggressive Driving • 88% of Canadian drivers admitted to engaging in aggressive driving behaviour within the past year (Nerves of Steel Study, 2002). • Various estimates have suggested that aggressive driving contributes to anywhere from 1,500 to 28,000 highway deaths and injuries per year in the USA (AAAFTS, 1999; “Road Rage”, 1997).

4. OPP StudyWickens, C. M., Wiesenthal, D. L., & Rippey, K. (in press). Motorists' perceptions of aggressive driving: A comparative analysis of Ontario and California drivers. In D. A. Hennessy & D. L. Wiesenthal (Eds.). Contemporary issues in road user behavior and traffic safety. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers. • At various times throughout the year, the OPP engages in well-publicized aggressive driving enforcement campaigns • Motorists were encouraged to pull off to the side of the highway, and to call in and report aggressive drivers • 14,406 telephone calls concerning driving complaints were made to the OPP Call Centre in the year 2000

5. OPP Study Coding Scheme A) Improper Speed - (i) Speeding/Racing (ii) Unnecessary Slow Driving (iii) Sporadic Speeds B) Tailgating C) Dangerous Lane Changes/Lane Usage D) Improperly Equipped and Unsafe Vehicle E) Disobedience of Traffic Signs and Signals F) Hostile Driver Displays G) Erratic Driver H) Driver Inattention I) Hazardous Road Conditions Not Attributable to Driver Behaviour J) Cannot be Classified • Each call could be placed in any one or more categories.

6. OPP StudyCoding Scheme Example • “Possibly impaired, weaving, nearly forced me off the road, no headlights.” • Coded as: • Erratic driver • Dangerous lane changes and lane usage • Improperly equipped and unsafe vehicle

7. Driver Complaints to the OPPN=14406

8. Monthly Complaints to the OPP N=14406

9. Daily Complaints to the OPPN=14406

10. Time of Complaints to the OPPN=14406

11. OPP Study Conclusions • Increased traffic congestion is related to the number of reported incidents of aggressive driving behaviour. This is consistent with the findings of Hennessy & Wiesenthal (1997, 1999), who found evidence for congestion-induced stress leading to aggressive roadway behaviours.

12. Potential Applications of the OPP Study • Identification of appropriate targets and time periods for future OPP enforcement campaigns • Focus of media campaigns, advertisements, and warning signs • Themes for driver education and testing

13. The Focus on Driver Anger and Driver Stress • Causal or correlational relationship • Limitations of research methodology

14. What variables contribute to driver stress or anger?

15. PERFORMANCE e.g., loss of attention, impairment of control, risk-taking ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS e.g., bad weather, traffic jams COGNITIVE STRESS PROCESSES e.g., perceiving external demands as taxing or exceeding personal resources/coping abilities (Hint: This is Lazarus’ stress model!) SUBJECTIVE SYMPTOMS e.g., tiredness, apathy, tension, insecurity, worry, self-preoccupation PERSONALITY/ SELF-KNOWLEDGE e.g., dislike of driving, self-beliefs, aggressiveness Transactional / Interactionism model of driver stress (Matthews, 2001).

16. Job Stress StudyWickens, C. M., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (2005). State driver stress as a function of occupational stress, traffic congestion, and trait stress susceptibility. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 10, 83-97. • Primary Research Question: • What is the effect of job stress on state driver stress? • Dependent Variable: • State Driver Stress = the stress experienced by the driver in the actual driving environment

17. Personality and Situational Variables Assessed in the Job Stress Study • Traffic congestion • Trait driver stress (general disposition or trait susceptibility to driver stress) • Occupational stress • Time urgency • Perceived control

18. Procedures for the Job Stress Study • Completed trait driver stress, job stress, and demographic, occupational, and vehicle use questionnaires. • Identified high and low traffic areas and places to safely park vehicle. • On evening of the testing session, drove through first traffic area and called experimenter. State driver stress questionnaire was administered over phone. Procedures repeated for second traffic area.

19. Results of Job Stress Study • Drivers experienced more state driver stress in high traffic congestion. • High trait stress drivers experienced more state driver stress. • More time-urgent drivers experienced more state driver stress. • Drivers with more perceived control experienced less stress.

20. Results of Job Stress Study • Job stress led to more driver stress in light traffic congestion but not high traffic congestion. • What?#!....Hmm…..

21. The WICKENS Curvilinear Theory of Occupational and Driver Stress

22. Curvilinear Relationship? • LOW CONGESTION: Minimal cognitive resources required, thus occupational stressors able to impact on a driver’s perception of the roadway environment. • MEDIUM (CROWDED BUT MOVING) CONGESTION: More attention and focus required for safe operation of the vehicle. This more intense concentration prevents occupational stressors from entering a driver’s immediate consciousness and adding to the immediate experience of driver stress. • HIGH (STOP-AND-GO) CONGESTION: Minimal cognitive resources required, thus occupational stressors able to impact on a driver’s perception of the roadway environment.

23. Applications and Future Directions of Job Stress Study • Education and treatment programs

24. Applications and Future Directions of Job Stress Study • Springboard to other research • E.g. effects of driver stress on job stress • Reduces frustration tolerance • Increases social hostility • Increases perception of workplace hassles • Cost of employee commuting in terms of lost employee productivity, strained employee relations, employee lateness and absenteeism, etc.?? • Encourage employers to reduce both job stress (through employee assistance programs, conflict mediation, etc.) and driver stress (through flex hours and work-from-home opportunities)??

25. In-Class Study • Attributions in the Driving Environment • Do certain attributions for driver behaviour determine how we judge other drivers and what our emotional and behavioural responses to those drivers will be?

26. In-Class Study

27. CAUSAL JUDGMENTS EMOTIONAL RESPONSES BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES CAUSAL DIMENSIONS Intentionality Negative/ Antisocial Behaviour Controllability Anger Locus of Causality Responsibility Positive/ Prosocial Behaviour Stability Sympathy Globality