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LEAD SMELTING International Review

LEAD SMELTING International Review. Nicole Fobi, MD Internal Medicine Residency Program Morehouse School Of Medicine Atlanta, Georgia. Mentor: Dr. Mary Jean Brown Peter Kowalski, MPH NCEH /ATSDR / CDC, Atlanta, GA.

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LEAD SMELTING International Review

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  1. LEAD SMELTING International Review Nicole Fobi, MD Internal Medicine Residency Program Morehouse School Of Medicine Atlanta, Georgia Mentor: Dr. Mary Jean Brown Peter Kowalski, MPH NCEH /ATSDR / CDC, Atlanta, GA “The findings and conclusions in this presentation have not been formally disseminated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry and should not be construed to represent any agency determination or policy.”

  2. Objectives • Background of Lead • Mining/ Smelting and environmental effects • Demographics , Statistics and Uses • Environment and Health Effects • Stakeholders and Policies/Guidelines • Recommendations

  3. Lead in Galena Mineral Lead Mine pit

  4. “Blasting operation” to form mine pit

  5. Truck in open mine pit

  6. Mining and Smelting “Rod and Ball” machine and crushed Galena from lead mine The galena is taken to a mill and crushed in a “rod and ball” machine

  7. Large, uncovered trucks transport crushed galena to the lead smeltering plant • Dust flies off of truck • Truck uses a lead-acid battery

  8. Mining and Smelting • Crushed Galena put into suspension tank with water and Dithiophosphate chemical • Chemical reaction creates froth, separating lead from other ores (sulfides). Lead clings to froth which hardens and is skimmed of resulting in 90% lead concentrate • Lead roasted, forms clumps called sinter which is melted with coke (made from coal) and blasted with hot air • Result from chemical reaction is lead bullion

  9. Froth flotation cell Lead froth waiting to be skimmed off

  10. Statistics Global Demand • 6.98 million tonnes in 2004, 7.13 million tonnes in 2005 • US largest user (1.47 million tonnes) • China next largest (1.18 million tonnes) increased by more than 8% over 2004-5, and doubled since 2000 • Rises in demand forecast for Germany, Czech Republic and India

  11. Statistics Supply Sources • 3.15 million tonnes from primary mining in 2004 • Sources in U.S. Australia, Canada, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru and Portugal • Remainder from secondary recycling • Recycling rates higher for developed countries (60 to 70%) and lower for developing countries (< 30%)

  12. Statistics Major smelting companies: 25 smelters and refineries in Europe, 23 in North America and 18 in China accounted for two-thirds of world production in 2005 Secondary and cottage smelting companies need to be addressed !! CRU

  13. Uses

  14. Environment and Health Material leftover is called tailings • Tailings composed of: . Wastewater . Dithiophosphate . Zinc ore . Sulfides • Garbage from mine workers discarded on landscape as well EPA

  15. Lead contaminating nearby stream Accumulation of tailings Waste water

  16. Man-made lake filled with contaminated water

  17. Mining activities leave huge holes in landscape Holes filled in by the mining company usually with material containing tailings and waste Environment and Health

  18. Devastating geological effects

  19. Environment and Health Exposure Pathway Current Former Air Soil Water _ + + + + +

  20. Environment and Health - Over exposure to lead is the leading cause of workplace illness!!!! - Lead mine/smelter workers may be exposed to lead when: 1. Handling/cleaning the dust collection system 2. Improperly maintained collection systems 3. Settled dust in the area 4. Liquid containing lead that may have splashed onto a worker or an object and has turned into lead dust 5. Bringing contaminated clothing home OSHA

  21. Occupations That Expose Workers to Lead • Removal of lead coatings striping of old paint, demolition of old structures, home renovation • Heating, machining or spraying lead products radiator and battery repair, welding, cutting, machining, grinding lead alloys, repair or removal of water lines using lead piping/solder, electricians, stained glass window repair, ammunition • Making of lead products lead-acid battery, glaze, pottery, cable, stained glass, paint/ink, mixing /weighing of lead powders, lead sheeting, ammunitions, glass blowing, housing and construction

  22. Health Consequences of Lead Exposure Most humans are not adequately informed of the health risks!

  23. Blood Lead Levels Associated with Adverse Health Effects Lead Concentration in Blood (g/dL) Adults Children 150 Encephalopathy Death Nephropathy 100 Encephalopathy Frank Anemia Nephropathy Frank Anemia Male Reproductive Effects Colic 50 Hemoglobin Synthesis and Female Reproductive Effects 40 Nerve Conduction Velocity Hemoglobin Synthesis 30 Elevated Blood Pressure Vitamin D Metabolism Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin (men) 20 Nerve Conduction Velocity Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin (women) Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin Vitamin D Metabolism(?) 10 Developmental Toxicity IQ, Hearing, Growth Transplacental Transfer Note: = increased function and = decreased function. Source: ATSDR, 1992

  24. Multi-nation Organizations • NGOs • Country Health Agencies • Lead Industries • Communities Stakeholders

  25. Stakeholders In developing countries, awareness of the public health impact of exposure to lead is growing but relatively few of these countries have introduced policies and regulations for significantly combating the problem.

  26. Stakeholders Stakeholders need to unite and collaborate systemically to reduce emissions, remediate soil contamination, and operate a sustainable monitoring system.

  27. WHO Public health measures to reduce and prevent exposure to lead : 1. Phasing out lead additives in fuels and removing lead from petrol as soon as is practicable. 2. Reducing and phasing out the use of lead-based paints. 3. Eliminating the use of lead in food containers. Bulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686 Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions

  28. 4. Identifying, reducing and eliminating lead used in additional medicines and cosmetics. 5. Minimizing the dissolving of lead in water treatment and water distribution Systems. 6. Improving control over exposure to lead in workplaces. 7. Improving identification of populations at high risk of exposure on the basis of monitoring systems. Bulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686 Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions

  29. Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions 8. Improving procedures of health risk assessment. 9. Improving promotion of understanding and awareness of exposure to lead. 10. Increasing emphasis on adequate nutrition, health care and attention to socioeconomic conditions that may exacerbate the effects of lead. 11. Developing international monitoring and analy­tical quality control programmes. Bulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686

  30. WHO-Lead Air Quality Guidelines Guidelines for lead in air will be based on the concentration of lead in blood. A critical level of lead in blood of 100 μg/l is proposed. (based group averages) Chapter 6.7 Lead Air Quality Guidelines - Second Edition WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2001 13

  31. WHO-Lead Air Quality Guidelines 1. Currently measured baseline blood lead levels of minimal anthropogenic origin probably range 10–30 μg/l. 2. Various international expert groups - earliest adverse effects of lead in populations of young children begin at 100–150 μg/l 3. Inhalation of airborne lead is a significant route of exposure for adults but is of less significance for young children, for whom other pathways of exposure such as ingested lead are generally more important. Chapter 6.7 Lead Air Quality Guidelines - Second Edition WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2001 13

  32. WHO-Lead Air Quality Guidelines 4. 1 μg lead per m3 air directly contributes approx 19 μg lead per liter blood in children and about 16 μg per liter blood in adults 5. In typical situations, an increase of lead in air also contributes to increased lead uptake by indirect environmental pathways - 1 μg lead per m3 air would contribute to 50 μg lead per liter blood. 6. To prevent further increases of lead in soils and consequent increases in the exposure of future generations, air lead levels should be kept as low as possible. Chapter 6.7 Lead Air Quality Guidelines - Second Edition WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2001 13

  33. WHO-Lead Air Quality Guidelines 7. Efforts be made to ensure that at least 98% of an exposed population, have blood lead levels that do not exceed 100 μg/l. - The median blood lead level would not exceed 54 μg/l. - The annual average lead level in air should not exceed 0.5 μg/m3. - This proposal is based on the assumption that the upper limit of non-anthropogenic lead in blood is 30 μg/l. Chapter 6.7 Lead Air Quality Guidelines - Second Edition WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2001 13

  34. WHO-Lead Air Quality Guidelines LOAEL : lowest observed adverse effect levels ALA: Delta Aminolevulinic Acid Dehydrate FEP: Free Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin

  35. World Bank Lead and Zinc Smelting: Industry sector guidelines • The key production and control practices that will lead to compliance with emissions requirements : • Give preference to the flash-smelting process where appropriate. • 2. Choose oxygen enrichment processes that al­low higher SO2 • concentrations in Smelter gases to assist in sulfur recovery, use the • double-con-tact, double-absorption process. • 3. Improve energy efficiency to reduce fuel us­age and associated • emissions; use low NOx burners; give preference to natural gas as fuel. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook WORLD BANK GROUP Effective July 1998

  36. World Bank Lead and Zinc Smelting: Industry sector guidelines • 4. Reduce air emissions of toxic metals to acceptable levels. • 5. Maximize the recovery of dust and minimize fugitive missions; • use hoods and doghouse enclosures. • Reduce effluent discharge by maximizing wastewater recycling. • 7. Avoid contamination of groundwater and surface waters by leaching of toxic metals from tailings, process residues, slag, and other wastes. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook WORLD BANK GROUP Effective July 1998

  37. Monitoring: World Bank • Air Emissions • Liquid affluent • Solid Wastes • Ground water • Surface water

  38. World Bank Parameter Maximum value Sulfur dioxide 400 Arsenic 0.1 Cadmium 0.05 Copper 0.5 Lead 0.5 Mercury 0.05 Zinc 1.0 Particulates 20 Emissions Effluents Parameter Maximum value pH 6–9 TSS 20 Arsenic 0.1 Cadmium 0.1 Copper 0.5 Iron 3.5 Lead 0.1 Mercury 0.01 Zinc 2.0 Total metals 5 Temperature increase less than 3 (milligrams per normal cubic meter)

  39. World Bank • Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with the operating standards • Records of monitoring results should be kept in an acceptable format. • The results should be reported to the responsible authorities and relevant parties as required Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook WORLD BANK GROUP Effective July 1998

  40. World Bank Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines BASE METAL SMELTING AND REFINING • Environment • Occupational health and safety • Community health and safety • Construction and decommissioning • Performance indicators and monitoring APRIL 30, 2007 World Bank Group

  41. ILZRO The INTERNATIONAL LEAD ZINC RESEARCH ORGANIZATION • Sponsors include most of the major producers of lead, zinc and silver • ILZRO's R&D portfolio for 2007 encompasses the primary applications of lead, zinc and silver, as well as significant work in the areas of the environment and human health. • The results of ILZRO R&D efforts are communicated through a variety of forums, including research reports, technical seminars, expert consulting, internet sites and printed publications.

  42. ILZSG The International Lead and Zinc Study Group Represents one of the few international forums for the lead and zinc business where Governments and Industry can exchange views on the consequences of international environmental and health related initiatives on the trade in lead and zinc.

  43. ILZSG The ILZSG's Economic and Environment Committee follows all environmental aspects relevant to lead and zinc mines and smelters and end uses which entails: • monitoring of environmental issues • Informing Study Group member countries on particular issues relating to - ecotoxicity - transboundary movements of waste - transboundary air pollution - international co-ordination of activities on chemicals ILZSG has already released environmental studies such as "Environmental and Health Controls on Lead”

  44. ILMC International Lead Management Center The international lead industry is committed, through the ILMC to work with governments, industries and the international community to manage the risk of lead exposure. ILMC complements and supports existing international risk management activities and responds to the individual needs of countries who wish to introduce such projects in either industry or their local communities.

  45. ILMC Sponsors: • Aberfoyle Ltd., Australia • ASARCO, Inc., United States of America • Boliden, Sweden • Cominco Ltd., Canada • Doe Run Company, United States of America • Met-Mex Pen˜oles S.A. de C.V., Mexico • Mount Isa Mines Holdings, Australia • Noranda Mining and Smelting, Inc., Canada • Pasminco Ltd., Australia • Union Miniere, Belgium

  46. ILMC Action Programs : • Lead mining, smelting, refining and recycling • Occupational and public health • Risk reduction programs • Technology transfer • Social policy and economic issues

  47. Activities of The ILMC 1. Pilot Programs (e.g.. Philippines, Mexico, Russia, Peru) 2. Risk Management Teams 3. Worker Health and Hygiene Training Programs 4. Outreach To Consumer Industries 5. Information Resources and Databases 6. Internet Services 7. News Casting 8. Product and Application Information

  48. LDAI Lead Development Association International LDAI is dedicated to encouraging the responsible use of lead and its compounds

  49. LDAI - Objectives 1. Promote the responsible use of lead throughout its life cycle 2. Increase lead's competitiveness with alternative materials 3. Provide cost-effective co-ordination of sustainable initiatives for the benefit of the lead industry and society 4. Contribute to the identification of appropriate ways to manage risks to health or the environment attributable to lead 5. Address legislative or other scientific issues which may affect the lead industry 6. Communicate with members and with outside parties as appropriate on issues of relevance to the lead industry.

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