Leadership, Traits, Skills, Styles and Intelligences

1. Leadership, Traits, Skills, Styles and Intelligences Chapter 2

2. Learning Objectives Introduce and critically discuss traditional approaches to leadership that look at the traits, characteristics and personality of leaders Introduce and critically discuss the notion of leadership style Introduce and critically discuss the notion of intelligence or intelligences and the link to leadership Explore the difference between traits, skills, styles and intelligences of leadership

3. Trait, Personality, Skill, Style or Intelligence? Trait – a distinguishing feature in character, appearance, habit or portrayal Personality – a distinctive character or qualities of a person, personal existence or identity, being a person Skill – expertness, a practised ability, facility in an action Style – a kind or sort, a manner of writing, speaking or doing, a distinctive manner of a person Intelligence – understanding, a quickness of understanding

4. The Early Development of Leadership Theory

5. Traits • Thomas Carlyle (1866) and ‘The Great Man Theory’ • Leaders as heroes in society within positions of responsibility • Roots of leadership as a heroicised, masculinised concept (Spector, 2016) • Stogdill (1948 and 1974): theory and research into traits • Leaders are born – aim to find the ‘ultimate list of traits’ • Research could not prove that traits are the main explanatory factor for leadership and effective leadership • Lack of evidence has led to inclusion of behavioural and situational factors

6. Key Trait Research Studies and Findings Source: Northouse, P.G. 2007. Leadership: Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. P. 18.

7. Traits • ‘Leaders are born, not made’ and effective leaders have certain qualities in common, such as: • Intelligence, dependability, sense of responsibility, energy, sociability (e.g. Stogdill - Ohio State studies) • Xu et al. (2014) show that research into traits is still going strong and point towards new insights that suggest dynamic differences – linked to changes over time – between intrinsic and extrinsic traits • BUT: Findings are not consistent and the leadership situation is formally not considered

8. Personality • Judge et al. (2002) demonstrated a link between the ‘big 5 personality factors’ and leadership: • Neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness • Hogan and Judge (2012) suggest in their review of the field two factors mediating the impact of personality on effective leadership: • The leader’s socio-political intelligence • The extent to which the leader is seen to have integrity

9. Leadership Styles • Considers behavioural patterns as the determinant of effective leadership • Principal dichotomy between: • Task behaviours • Concern for task - the extent to which the leader emphasises the task objectives • Directive leadership - the extent to which the leader makes all the decisions regarding group activity • Relationship behaviours • Concern for people - the extent to which the leader emphasises the needs, interests etc. of the group • Participative leadership - the extent to which the leader shares decision-making concerning group activity

10. Leadership Styles • The key research studies informing the Styles approach to Leadership were: • Boys Club Experiment (Lewin et al., 1939) • The Ohio State Study (e.g. Stogdill and Coons, 1957; Halpin and Winter, 1957) • The Michigan State Study (e.g. Katz and Kahn, 1951; Likert, 1961) • This led to the development of Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid (1964, 1978, 1985) and John Adair’s Action Centred Leadership Model (1973)

11. Leadership Styles • Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid (1964) 1,9: Country Club Mgmt 9 9,9: Team Mgmt 5,5: Middle-of-the-Road Mgmt Concern for People 9,1: Authority-Compliance Mgmt 1,1: Impoverished Mgmt 1 9 Concern for Results

12. Leadership Styles Adair’s (1973) Action Centred Leadership

13. Leadership Styles Key Strengths: Provide a language with which to describe leadership in a generic way and stresses the ability to learn to be a leader. Offers a best way of leading. Key Limitations: Research findings are ambiguous and inconsistent. Lack of consideration of contextual variables.

14. Skills Approaches • Three-Skill Approach (Katz, 1955): • Technical Skills: functional and problem-solving skills • Human: ability to work effectively as a group member and to build co-operative effort within a team • Conceptual Skill: ability to see the enterprise as a whole • Different skills needed at different managerial levels • Technical Skills decrease in importance at higher levels • Human Skills are important at all levels • Conceptual Skills increase in importance at higher levels

15. Leadership of Organisations vs. Leadership in Organisations • Leadership of Organisations: human actors in interaction with the organisation in its entirety • Resembles Conceptual skills in Katz’ skills approach • Leadership in Organisation: involves team leadership and face-to-face interaction at all levels • Focus of 90% of the current leadership literature

16. The Systems Model of Leadership • Katz and Kahn (1966, 1978): • At lower hierarchical levels little ‘leadership’ is required – focus is on administration of effective operations • At middle levels administrative procedures are developed and implemented, and human relations skills are important • At the top levels of an organization, administrative procedures are initiated to reflect new policy • The extent to which ‘leadership’ is needed at any of these levels has been subject to wider debate

17. The Systems Model of Leadership Adapted from: Sinha, J.B.P. (1995) The Cultural Context of Leadership and Power. New Delhi: Sage, pp39-40 (Originally published in Katz, D., and Kahn, R.L. (1966) The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York: John Wiley).

18. Organizational Leadership: Towards a General Model • Five ‘Intelligences’ Underlying Leadership • Cognitive intelligence • Spiritual intelligence • Emotional intelligence • Moral intelligence • Behavioural skills(Gill, 2006)

19. Cognitive Intelligence The ability to perceive and understand information, reason with it, imagine possibilities, use intuition and imagination, make judgements, solve problems and make decisions.

20. Spiritual Intelligence - 1 The ability to understand that human beings have an animating need for meaning, value and a sense of worth in what they seek and do and to respond to that need. (Gill, 2006)

21. Spiritual Intelligence - 2 “…the intelligence with which we address and solve problems of meaning and value.” (Zohar and Marshall, 2001)

22. Emotional Intelligence - 1 The ability to understand oneself and the feelings and needs of other people, exercise self-control, and respond to other people in appropriate ways in order to influence, motivate and inspire them. (Gill, 2006)

23. Emotional Intelligence - 2 “Emotional Intelligence includes self-awareness and impulse control, persistence, zeal and self-motivation, empathy and social deftness.” (Goleman, 1996)

24. Emotional Intelligence - 3 • Knowing one’s emotions • Managing emotions • Motivating oneself • Recognising emotions in others • Handling relationships (Salovey and Mayer, 1990)

25. Moral Intelligence The ability to differentiate right from wrong according to universal moral principles. (Gill, 2006)

26. Behavioural Skills Using and responding to emotion (e.g. body language), communicating in other ways (writing, speaking and active listening), using personal power, and using different leadership styles according to the situation.

27. Critical Views of the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Leadership • Emotional Intelligence research is not applicable to all cultures and contexts (Lindebaum and Cartwright, 2010; Lindebaum and Cassell, 2012) • Antonakis, Ashkanasy and Dasborough (2009) • ‘…does leadership as a science need ‘emotional intelligence (EI)?’ – John Antonakis • ‘…researchers need to continue to develop and to study emotions and in particular their role in leadership.’ - Neal Ashkanasy and Marie Dasborough

28. References Adair, J. (1973) Action Centred Leadership. New York: McGraw-Hill. Antonakis, J., Ashkanasy, N.M. and Dasborough, M.T. (2009) Does leadership need emotional intelligence? Leadership Quarterly, 20: 247-261. Blake, R.R., and Mouton, J.S. (1964) The Managerial Grid. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company. Bryman, A. (1992) Charisma and Leadership in Organizations. London: Sage. Carlyle, T. (1866) On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History. New York: John Wiley. Gill, R. (2006) Theory and Practice of Leadership. London: Sage Publications. Goleman, D. (1995) Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Hogan, R. and Judge, T., (2012). Personality and leadership. In M.G. Rumsey. (Ed.) The Oxford handbook of Leadership, p.37-46 Judge, T.A., Bono, J.E., Ilies, R. and Gerhardt, M.W. (2002) Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 765–780. Katz, D. and Kahn, R.L. (1966) The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York: John Wiley. Katz, R.L. (1974) Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard Business Review, 52(5): 90-102. (Originally published in Harvard Business Review in 1955). Kirkpatrick, S.A. and Locke, E.A. (1991) Leadership: Do traits matter? The Executive, 5: 48-60. Lewin, K., Lippitt, R. and White, R.K. (1939) Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10: 271-301.

29. References Lindebaum, D., and Cartwright, S. (2010) A Critical Examination of the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership. Journal of Management Studies, 47 (7): 1317-1342. Lindebaum, D., and Cassell, C. (2012) A contradiction in terms? Making sense of emotional intelligence in a construction management environment. British Journal of Management, 23(1): 65-79. Lord, R.G., DeVader, C.L. and Alliger, G.M. (1986) A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalisation procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71: 402-410. Mann, R.D. (1959) A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 56: 241-270. Northouse, P.G. (2007) Leadership: Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Salovey, P. and Mayer, J. (1990) Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9: 185-211.Stogdill, R.M. (1948) Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. Journal of Psychology, 25: 35-71. Sinha, J.B.P. (1995) The Cultural Context of Leadership and Power. New Delhi: Sage. Spector, B.A. (2016) Carlyle, Freud, and the Great Man Theory more fully considered. Leadership, 12(2): 250-260. Stogdill, R.M. (1974) Handbook of leadership: A survey of the theory and research. New York: Free Press. Zohar, D. and Marshall, I. (2001) Spiritual Intelligence. Bloomsbury Publishing. Xu, L., Fu, P., Xi, Y., Zhang, L., Zhoa, X., Cao, C., Liao, Y., Li, G., Wue, X., and Ge, J. (2014) Adding dynamics to a static theory: How leader traits evolve and how they are expressed. Leadership Quarterly, 25: 1095-1119.