Experimental Philosophy: Come for the Answers, Stay for the Questions! Commentary on Knobe and Roedder

1. Experimental Philosophy: Come for the Answers,Stay for the Questions!Commentary on Knobe and Roedder Eddy Nahmias & Thomas Nadelhoffer Georgia State Univ. Dickinson College / FSU enahmias@gsu.edutan02@fsu.edu Society for Philosophy & Psychology St. Louis June 2, 2006

2. The Answers • The Knobe Effect: judgments of whether X intentionally did O are influenced by whether O is bad. • The Knobe/Nichols Effect: judgments of whether X is morally responsible in a deterministic universe are influenced by whether X did something bad. • The Knobe/Roedder Effect: judgments of whether X values O are influenced by whether O is considered good.

3. The Questions • What are intuitions? What is the relationship between intuitions, concepts, and theories? • Whose intuitions should matter? Why should we care about folk intuitions (concepts, theories)? • What are the best methods for understanding folk intuitions, folk concepts, folk psychology? • Why should we think that folk responses indicate a competence with the relevant concept (theory) rather than bias, irrationality, performance error?

4. Two answers to the answers from Experimental Philosophy • Foundational: Conceptual analyses and philosophical theories should systematize folk conceptual use (platitudes) and intuitions, so the folk’s answers (the data) form the foundation for our answers. • Deflationary: The folk’s answers (the data) show that folk intuitions are a conflicted mess, subject to biases and performance errors, so folk intuitions should have little epistemic weight in our philosophical theorizing. • (Oh, and there’s no reason to think philosophers’ intuitions are any bettter.)

5. A question of “values” • What are values? • What is the folk concept of values? (valuing vs. being a value) • Is the concept of valuing a prototype concept?

6. Knobe and Roedder’s Answer • “Morality Bias”: When X judges whether A values O, X’s judgment is triggered by various prototypical psychological states (A’s beliefs about O, attitudes about O, actions towards O), but also by X’s beliefs about whether O is good. • (What about X’s beliefs about whether A is good?) • We say George values racial equality because we do. • Mormons say Susan values abstinence because they do, • while New Yorkers say Susan is just trying hard to be as cool as they are and give up her religious hang-ups.

7. Alternative Answers • “Principle of Psychological Charity”: When X judges whether A values O, X’s judgment is triggered by various prototypical psychological states, and X tends to interpret A’s psychological states charitably (such that they are True and Good). • Does charity mean (a) trying to keep A’s psychology most internally consistent and/or (b) trying to keep it most consistent with X’s beliefs and values? • How can we test between morality bias and principle of charity?

8. Charity for morally bad agent (Hitler) vs. morally good agent (G. Washington) • Adolf Hitler [George Washington] lived in a culture in which women were not considered equal to men and did not have as much power or freedom as men. He thought that the basic viewpoint of his culture was more or less correct. That is, he believed that he ought to be advancing the power of men at the expense of women’s freedom. ¶ Nonetheless, historians also know that Hitler [Washington] sometimes felt a certain pull in the opposite direction. He often found himself feeling guilty when he did things to limit the freedom of most women. And sometimes he ended up acting on these feelings and doing things that fostered equality for women. ¶ Hitler [Washington] wished he could change this aspect of himself. He wished he could stop feeling any pull to increase women’s freedom and just act to advance the power and control of men. • Despite his conscious feelings, Hitler [Washington] actually valued equality for women. • [on back] To what extent do you value equality for women? • Good news: 38 responded 3 (very much), eight 2, one 1, two 0, • one -3 (not at all)

9. 0.24 -1.08 N = 50 Mode answers for Washington were +1, +2, -1 (n = 7); Mode answer for Hitler was -2 (n = 10).

10. Are judgments biased by non-moral values? • Gary lives in a culture in which many people enjoy watching their favorite sports teams play and spend a lot of time doing so. Gary is not one of these people. He spends little time watching sports and he believes it is a bad way to spend his time. ¶ Nonetheless, sometimes Gary feels a certain pull in the opposite direction. He finds himself feeling guilty when he does not watch his town’s sports teams play games. And sometimes he ends up acting on these feelings and watching the games. ¶ Gary wishes he could change this aspect of himself. He wishes he could stop feeling the pull to watch sports and just continue doing other things. • Despite his conscious beliefs, Gary actually values watching his town’s sports teams play. • To what extent do you value watching your sports teams play?

11. Interpreting the folk • Priming effects of questions? Culture’s values? • George 1 (some good actions, bad beliefs matching his society’s): “Despite the way he sometimes acts to foster racial equality, George actually values racial discrimination.” • (vs. K/R’s “Despite his conscious beliefs, George actually values racial equality.”) • George 2 (some bad actions, good beliefs matching his society’s): “Despite the way he sometimes acts to foster racial discrimination, George actually values racial equality.” • (vs. K/R’s “Despite his conscious beliefs, George actually values racial discrimination.”)

12. 0.83 0.59 0.37 -1.14 N = 36. No statistical difference between George 1 and George 2. But whereas K/R found subjects say George 1 values equality, we found trend in subjects saying he values discrimination. Folks are conflicted: George 1: 7 – 3 – 9 disagree — agree George 2: 7 – 0 – 10

13. What would folk say about the concept of valuing? • Are folk judgments indicative of folk concepts? Or are they indicative of folk psychology (e.g., theory of mind)? • Ask them: “Do you think that other people can only value what you value? Can they value bad things?” • “Do you think that whether someone values something depends on whether you value it? On whether it is good?” • What should we do when the folk’s conception of their concept (their theory) is different from their use of the concept (their intuitions)?

14. We don’t have the answers, but we hope you value our questions • Thanks to Joshua and Erica!

16. Are judgments biased by non-moral values? • Gary lives in a culture in which many people enjoy watching their favorite sports teams play games and they spend a lot of time doing so. Gary is one of these people. He spends a lot of time watching his favorite teams play games and he believes this is a good way to spend his time. ¶ Nonetheless, sometimes Gary feels a certain pull in the opposite direction. He finds himself feeling guilty when he spends time watching games. And sometimes he ends up acting on these feelings and doing something else during the games. ¶ Gary wishes he could change this aspect of himself. He wishes he could stop feeling the pull to do other things and just continue watching his teams play games. • Despite his conscious beliefs, Gary actually does not value watching his teams play games. • To what extent do you value watching your sports teams play games?

17. Alternative Answers • “Problems with Counterfactual Reasoning”: Subjects can’t (don’t want to) believe that George 1 really has the beliefs and second-order desires scenario says he has, so they bracket them when judging his values. • Mormons can’t (don’t want to) believe that Susan has the beliefs and second-order desires scenario says she has, so they bracket them when judging her values.

18. An answer to all our problems • Folk concepts are prototypes • Philosopher’s concepts are analyses (necessary and sufficient conditions) • So, folk concepts (and intuitions about them) will look like a conflicted mess when the prototypes conflict (in tricky thought experiments … or real life) • Philosophers try to clean up the mess • But for most concepts philosophers still need to take account of the prototypes, and in any case, they need to know what the folk concepts and intuitions are to know whether and to what extent they are revising them.