The Scientific Revolution

1. The Scientific Revolution Science from Copernicus to Newton

2. Origins of the New Science Basis of the Scientific Revolution: • 1.  Conflicting classical sources (Aristotle, Ptolemy, Galen) • 2.  Examination / focus of Renaissance artists on nature • 3.  Development of technical skills • 4.  Use of mathematics to understand nature

3. Forces influencing science • 1.  Aristotelian Philosophy:  provided a starting point • Matter made of four elements (earth, wind, water and fire) • 2.  Neo-Platonism:  revival of Platonic philosophy • emphasis on mathematics • 3.  Mystical / alchemy:  metaphysical (spiritual / moral) explanation of the world • Paracelsus:  doctor / alchemist who believed that disease could be diagnosed and treated with ingested medicine • 4.  Natural Philosophy:  attempt to explain the natural world

4. Characteristics of the Scientific Revolution • Europeans began to challenge classical thought • Materialistic:  all matter made up of the same material & subject to the same laws • Mathematical:  use calculation to replace common sense • measurable, repeatable phenomena • People began to understand the mathematical nature of the universe • Science boils down to the mathematical relationship • Development of scientific institutions began; Labs, universities, journals, language, careers

5. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) • Polish monk, mathematican and astronomer. • Presented first serious challenge to Ptolemy’s geocentric universe. • In On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres he proposed heliocentric theory • Avoided persecution through death

6. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) • Built Europe’s first modern astronomical laboratory • Discovered a supernova and comet. • Believed all other planets revolved around the sun while the earth remained stationary.

7. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • Supported Heliocentric and states that revolutions are elliptical (German) • Developed a mathematical formula as proof • Developed three laws of planetary motion

8. Laws of Planetary Motion • 1. All planets revolve around he sun in elliptical orbits. • 2. The velocity of the planet varies according to its distance from the sun (closer = faster, further = slower) • 3. set out mathematical formula to explain the physical relationship among the moving planets and the sun.

9. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • Asserted that planets are made of roughly same material as the Earth • Wrote The Starry Messenger (1610) • A Dialog Between the Two Great Systems of the World (1632) • Challenged biblical view of the heavens

10. Galileo and the Church • In 1632, Brought before the Roman Inquisition for teaching “Copernicanism” • Church was prepared to tolerate hypothesis (not fact). Galileo forced to recant. • Tried and found guilty of heresy, house arrest; Dialogue was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books

11. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) • Used experimental philosophy = physics • Start with the natural world and then try to explain it • Natural philosophy began with an idea and applied it to nature • Used math to create models based on nature - used formulas • Expressed observations in numeric language • Math was a precise language that allowed for replication, collaboration and the creation of new knowledge • Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687)

13. Laws of Universal Gravitation • 1.  Law of motion - every object is at rest or motion and continues until some force affects the object • 2.  Rate of change of motion is in proportion to the force which affects the object • 3.  To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction

14. Discoveries in Anatomy • Andreas Vesalius: • Galen (Classical source) established classical beliefs regarding anatomy and physiology. More accurate anatomical sketches   • William Harvey: • Blood circulates throughout the body in a continuous loop • Previously believed that there were two circulation systems • Heart as a pump

15. Discoveries in Chemistry • Robert Boyle • supported atomic view of matter - chemistry • Boyle's Law:  relationship between pressure and gas • Promoted the use to experimental technology

16. The Scientific Method • Use of observation and data collection to prove or disprove a hypothesis had been used by various researchers for centuries (especially the Arabs) • Scientists such as Copernicus and Galileo revive the use of these techniques in Europe. • Later scientists build upon their methods toward a more codified scientific method.

17. Francis Bacon • Challenged Aristotle’s reliance on deductive reasoning. • codification of the Scientific Method (inductive empirical experimentalism) • The Advancement of Learning (1605)

18. Rene Descartes • Jesuit education; Schooled in Aristotelian philosophy • Disagreed with the basis of Aristotelian philosophy • Embraced Skepticism (people who use doubt as the basis of knowledge) • Rejected absolute construct of knowledge, knowledge based on probability • Constructed knowledge based on doubt, but reaffirmed the value of deductive reasoning. • Used "proofs" to support philosophical learning • Could only accept that which you could prove • "I think, therefore I am"

19. Rene Descartes • Cartesian dualism:  Mind and matter are separate, so to is the physical world from intellectual constructs (basis for science)             • Example:  Ontological proof of god: • One could only accept God if you could prove it exists • Descartes knew that he was not perfect • Only a perfect individual could place that concept in ones mind • Therefore perfection must exist • What is perfection, existence without limits = God • proof for God based upon doubt, if you doubt it then it must exist at some level • Contrast it to Aristotelian proof:  Causality • believed that humans could more completely understand their world by using abstract principles • Believed in that nature operated based on a Mechanical set of laws

20. Blaise Pascal • Scientist who studied probability and mathematics. • He had concerns about science’s influence on faith. • Wrote Pensees, reflections on faith and science.

21. Scientific Societies • As the importance of science grew, scientific societies formed to promote research and share knowledge. • Many had gov’t connections and support: reflecting the growing influence of central governments, • Rome (1603), Florence (1657), England (Royal Society, 1662), France (French Academy, 1666), Prussia (Berlin Academy, 1701)