The Scientific Revolution

1. The Scientific Revolution Clair Spatt Bell 7 5/18/09

2. What was the Scientific Revolution? • the development of new technology and scientific theories • a period when new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences came about • led to a rejection of doctrines that had prevailed from Ancient Greece through the Middle Ages • laid the foundation of modern science • began with the publication of two works that changed the course of science in 1543 and continued through the late 17th century

3. Impact of the Renaissance • Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek as well as Latin • the language skills gave people access to newly discovered works by Ptolemy and Plato • most writings by them made it obvious that some ancient thinkers had disagreed with Aristotle and other accepted authorities of the Middle Ages

4. New Technology • technical problems that required careful observation and accurate measurements, such as calculating the amount of weight that a ship could hold, served to stimulate scientific activity • the invention of new instruments, such as the telescope and microscope, made fresh scientific discoveries possible • the printing press helped spread new ideas quickly and easily

5. Mathematics • Francois Viete, a French lawyer, was among the first to use letters to represent unknown quantities • he applied this algebraic method to geometry and laid the foundation for the invention of trigonometry • Simon Stevin, a Flemish engineer, introduced the decimal system • John Napier of Scotland invented a table of logarithms, which made it easier to calculate math problems

6. The Ptolemaic System • a model of the universe constructed using the ideas of Ptolemy, the greatest astronomer of antiquity in the A.D. 100s • geocentric system, because it places Earth at the center of the universe • the universe is seen as a series of concentric spheres – one inside the other • Earth is fixed or motionless at the center • the heavenly bodies, pure orbs of light, are embedded in the crystal-like, transparent spheres which revolve about Earth

7. The Ptolemaic System… • the moon is embedded in the first sphere, Mercury in the second, Venus in the third, and the sun in the fourth • the rotation of the spheres makes these heavenly bodies revolve about Earth and move in relation to one another • the tenth sphere is the “prime mover”; this sphere moves itself and gives motion to the other spheres • beyond the tenth sphere is Heaven, where God resides

8. Nicolaus Copernicus • native of Poland; mathematician • published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres • thought that his heliocentric or sun-centered concept of the universe offered a more accurate explanation than did the Ptolemaic System • in the system, the sun was the center of the universe and the planets revolved around the sun • the moon revolved around Earth • the apparent movement of the sun around the Earth was caused by the rotation of Earth on its axis and its journey around the sun

9. Johannes Kepler • German mathematician who took the next step in destroying the Ptolemaic System • used detailed astronomic data to arrive at his laws of planetary motion • his observations confirmed that the sun was at the center of the universe and also added new information • his first law showed that the planet’s orbits around the sun were not circular, rather the orbits were elliptical (egg-shaped) with the sun toward the end of the ellipse

10. Heliocentric Theory vs. Geocentric Theory

11. Galileo Galilei • taught mathematics • first European to make regular observations of the heavens using a telescope • discovered: mountains on the moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots • his discoveries were published in The Starry Messenger • made Europeans aware of the new view of the universe; found himself under suspicion by the Catholic Church

12. Isaac Newton • showed few signs of brilliance until he attended Cambridge University • became a professor of mathematics and wrote Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy • defined three laws of motion that govern the planetary bodies as well as objects on Earth • the universal law of gravitation explains why planetary bodies continue their elliptical orbits about the sun • every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity

13. Views of Astronomy

14. Breakthroughs In Medicine • Galen, a Greek physician in the A.D. 100s, dominated medicine by relying on animal (rather than human) dissection to picture human anatomy • Andreas Vesalius accurately described the individual organs and general structure of the human body • William Harvey showed that the heart, not the liver, was the beginning point for the circulation of blood; he also proved that the same blood which flows through the veins and arteries makes a complete circuit throughout the body

15. Breakthroughs In Chemistry • Robert Boyle was one of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments • he worked on the properties of gases • Boyle’s Law – the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it • Antoine Lavoisier invented a system for naming chemical elements still used today; many people consider him the founder of modern chemistry

16. Women’s Contributions • women scientists faced obstacles to practicing what they had learned • scholarship was considered the exclusive domain of men • many women contributed to the Scientific Revolution • they helped advance science through their writings and their hard work

17. Margaret Cavendish • came from an English aristocratic family • she was tutored at home and studied subjects considered suitable for girls of proper upbringing (music, dancing, reading, and needlework) • not formally educated in the sciences • wrote Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy • critical of the growing belief that humans were the masters of nature through science, as shown in her work

18. Maria Winkelmann • famous astronomer in Germany • received training in astronomy from a self-trained astronomer • she married Gottfried Kirch, Prussia’s foremost astronomer, so she became his assistant and began to practice astronomy more often • made the discovery of a comet • denied the position of assistant astronomer of the Berlin Academy even though she was highly qualified, because she was female

19. Philosophy and Reason • scientists came to believe that reason is the chief source of knowledge • brand new concepts of the universe were brought about during the time of the Scientific Revolution • strongly influenced the Western view of humankind • people started a search for knowledge

20. Rene Descartes • French philosopher during the 17th century • began by thinking and writing about the doubt and uncertainty that seemed to be everywhere in the confusion • his most famous work is Discourse On Method, written in 1637 • emphasized the importance of his own mind and asserted that he would only accept those things that his reason said were true • “I think, therefore I am.”

21. Rene Descartes… • he argued that because “the mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world can, the two must be radically different” • came up with the principle of the separation of mind and matter (and of mind and body) • allowed scientists to view matter as dead and inert; matter was something totally detached from the mind and that could be investigated independently by reason • father of modern rationalism; a system which in which thought is based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge

22. The Scientific Method • resulted when people became concerned about how they could best understand the physical world • a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence • steps: ask a question, do background research, construct a hypothesis, test using an experiment, analyze data, draw a conclusion, and communicate your results • ended up being crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world

23. Scientists Before • before beginning the reasoning, scientists tried to free their minds of opinions that might distort the real truth • started with detailed facts and proceeded toward general principles • from observing natural events, scientists propose hypotheses (theories) or possible explanations, for the events • systematic observations and carefully organized experiments to test the hypotheses would lead to correct general principles

24. Francis Bacon • developed the scientific method • English philosopher; not an actual scientist • had few scientific credentials • believed that scientists should not rely on the ideas of ancient authorities • thought people should learn about nature by using inductive reasoning, proceeding from the particular to the general

25. Francis Bacon… • clear about what he believed his scientific method would accomplish • stated that “the true and lawful goal of the sciences is none other that this: that human life be endowed with new discoveries and power” • much more concerned with practical matters than pure science • wanted science to benefit the areas of industry, agriculture, and trade • believed “human power” could be used to “conquer nature in action”

26. Impact On the Enlightenment • intellectuals were greatly impressed with the achievements of the Scientific Revolution • favorite word of the time was reason • application of the scientific method was an understanding of all life • hoped they could make progress toward a better society than the one they had inherited • ideas of the Enlightenment would become a form of reform and eventually revolution