Viewpoints on learning

Viewpoints on learning A review of learning theories

Primitive views of intelligence • Single factor--gray matter--and mostly inherited • Considered crystallized and un-alterable from birth • Environment was not considered a factor

First beginnings of scientific thought • Charles Spearman (1863-1945) for whom the Spearman correlation was also named • Used correlation to prove that there were at least two factors of intelligence • Two-factor theory--a general or inherited factor, and a specific factor, which we would today attribute to environment

Edward L. Thorndike • 1874-1949 • Proposed three kinds of intellience--abstract, concrete, and social • This was going on at a time when most inquiry in the behavioral sciences was still rather impressionistic and qualitative, not empirical

Louis L. Thurstone • 1887-1955 • In 1933 proposed a seven factor theory of intelligence

In various revisions found 90, then 120, then 150, and finally 200 independtly opearting, verifiable factors in intelligence. Has some explanations for LD: Chief obstacle: how do we apply a 200 factor theory of intelligence? Joy Paul Guilford

A de facto theory of intelligence with 13 factors After all, that’s what we test, isn’t it? Six factors are verbal (and presumed heavily environmental) Seven factors are performance (motor) and might be assumed to be somewhat hereditary. WAIS was developed in 1949; WISC and WPPSI followed; WISC-III is used now Wechsler Intelligence Scale theory

Multiple Intelligences--Howard Gardner, 1989 & 1993 • Linguistic • Musical • Logical-mathematical • Spatial • Bodily-kinesthetic • Interpersonal • Intrapersonal

Signal learning (classical conditioning) Stimulus-response ( B. F. Skinner) Motor chaining Verbal chaining Multiple discrimination learning Concept learning Principle learning Problem solving Gagne’ removed us from either-or! A great synthesis--Robert Gagne (1972)

While all of the behaviorism was going on, a radically different view of intelligence was being spawned by developmental psychologists such as Jean Piaget. Features of his theories included: Stage transition Use of schemata or thoughts in explaining learning Assimilation and accommodation Cognitive dissonance (Piaget; also Leon Festinger, 1957) The importance of environment

The following slides are from the new brain research that has been coming out in the past five years or so.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning “Educators must develop a basic understanding of the psychobiology of the brain to enable them to evaluate emerging educational applications.” Robert Sylwester

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning There are two types of brain cells. Neurons 10% of your brain cells are neurons. Glia 90% of your brain cells are glia.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning • The average three-pound brain contains about 100 billion neurons. • The average three-pound brain contains about 1000 billion glial cells.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning The average three-pound brain has about one quadrillion connections between neurons.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning It is the connection between neurons that makes us “smart”.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning • Heredity provides about 30-60% of our brain’s wiring. • 40-70% of our wiring comes from environmental impact.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning “Experience is the chief architect of the brain.”

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning • Neurons consist of a cell body, an axon and dendrites.

Brain Basics: How Neurons Communicate The axon sends information. The dendrites and cell body receive information. The action inside the cell is electrical. The action between cells is chemical. . Dendrites . Axon Cell Body .

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning Reoccurring electrical stimulation between cells promotes cell growth. This cell growth occurs in the form of dendrite branching. More dendrite branches create more connections. Hence, better understanding.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning • We learn on many levels at once. The cellular level is just one way learning occurs. Learning and behavior are also strongly affected by the other chemicals in the brain: the monomines and peptides. • Some estimate that over 98% of the brain’s communications occur through peptides and perhaps only 2% occurs through the synapses.

Brain Basics:The Memory Process Rehearsal Sight Elaboration and Organization Sensory Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory Sound Smell Initial Processing Taste Retrieval Touch Not transferred to short term memory and so not stored in the memory system

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning Sensory memory influences different areas of the brain.

Brain Basics: Reaction to Stimuli This slide represents blood flow changes that occur while an individual is seeing wordsin print.

Brain Basics: Reaction to Stimuli This slide represents blood flow changes that occur while an individual is hearing words.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning Memory is a process rather than a skill or a thing. A given “memory” is not created or stored in one single place in the brain.

Brain Basics: The Learning Process Sensory Memory Long-term Memory Limbic System Short-term Memory Neurons are stimulated. Electro-chemical activity strengthens the synapse. Brain determines which information is emotionally important enough to attend to. Senses receive information. Repeated activation improves message Transmission. The more these networks of neurons are used, the stronger they become…the more easily they are accessed and information recalled.

Brain Basics: M -Space The capacity of short-term memory appears to develop with age. The number of spaces increases by one unit every other year beginning at age three. Juan Pascual-Leon, 1970 The m-space capacity of individuals increases at about this rate but can vary up or down by up to two units for each age group. 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Age

Brain Basics: Chunking A chunk is any cohesive group of items of information that we can remember as if it were a single item. The difference between novices and experts in a field appears to be that experts tend -- because of a great deal of experience in a field -- to organize information into much larger chunks, while novices work with isolated bits of information. Benjamin Bloom

Brain Basics: Schemas Our neural networks make up a map that represents our general knowledge about the world. This neural map is often called “schema”. Our schema provides us with the way for us to understand a subject or the world around us. “In order to comprehend, we select a schema that seems appropriate and fill in the missing information.” Pat Wolfe Without the appropriate schema, students have no way to assimilate new information.

Brain Basics: The Brain and Learning For more information about the brain and learning, visit the ArtFul Minds web site. http://library.advanced.org/50072/

Best applications of all of the theories (1) • Do nothing aversive unless there are very clear-cut reasons for doing so. • Have some exposition time, but also much hands-on time for students to explore. • Tolerate some ambiguity. No two students learn things entirely alike. • The behaviorists are correct about the optimal sequencing of instruction

Best applications (2) • Genetics lays the basic pattern, but environment offers a lot of room for change • Positive reinforcement, for whatever it may mean to any given student, is not out of date. • Arranging the conditions of learning (Gagne’) can enhance learning opportunities, but not guarantee them.

Best applications--3rd • Learning occurs best when people feel free to make some mistakes • Learning occurs best when people have some idea of what the new learning will look like in operation--in short, modeling • Learning occurs best when people can be shown connections between what they already know and the new piece of information

Viewpoints on learning