SOUTHWEST ASIA TO 1945

1. Egypt was an English protectorate • British diplomats, officers dominate foreign policy, military to protect canal • Egypt was scene of fighting in both World War I and II • Arabia • Wahabis conquer Hejaz (Mecca); Create a united Arabia (Saudi Arabia) • British control Aden, Oman, UAE; protectorates over Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar • Turkey • Turkey was partition between Greek, British, French, Italians, Armenians • Rise of Turkish nationalist movement under Mustafa Kemal • Sought peace treaty, alliance, arms from Soviet Union • Stopped Greek invasion of Anatolia; pushed Greeks out of treaty lands • Expelled all Greeks from 3,000 year old homelands • Created a modern, westernized state • Dropped use of Arabic script, created a modern Turkish script based on Latin alphabet • Relied on secularized law, institutions to run state; women no longer veiled, acquired many rights • Negotiated the return of the straits and other areas with Western Allies • Partition Armenia with USSR • Iraq, Transjordan, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon • Arab aspirations unrealized; Western nations refused to allow creation of Arab states • Arabs very disappointed that they were not given independence • League of Nation Mandates; British military occupation • British set up former rulers of Hejaz as kings in both Jordan, Iraq; allowed self-government • Zionist dream of a Jewish state in Palestine • Zionism affirmed by Balfour Declaration, 1917, and Paris peace talks • Britain supported Zionist effort, but limited Jewish migrants to Palestine • Conflicts between Arab Palestinians and Jewish settlers, 1920s and 1930s • Arab Palestinians resisted both British rule and Jewish settlement violently • Increased Jewish migration to escape Nazis; armed for self-protection • Independent Arab states opposed a Jewish state SOUTHWEST ASIA TO 1945

2. Arab states, except Palestine, gained independence during, after World War II • British suppress Iraqi nationalist uprising in 1941; expel Vichy French from Syria • British, US force French to grant Lebanon, Syria independence in 1943 • Creation of Israel • Unable to resolve conflict, Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947 • UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine and Israel; Arabs opposed • 1947, British withdrew, civil war broke out, Jews proclaimed the state of Israel • Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel • Israel achieved victory in 1949; claimed territories larger than what was granted by UN • Egypt • Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952 • Nasser became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism • Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both powers • Nasser dedicated to ending imperialism and destroying state of Israel • Suez crisis, 1956, greatly enhanced Nasser's prestige • Canal controlled by Britain; Nasser nationalized it to build Egypt's economy • Attacked by British, French, and Israeli forces, which retook canal • Both superpowers condemned military action, forced them to withdraw • Suez crisis divided United States and its allies in western Europe • Pan-Arab Nationalism • Sought to unify Arabs in one secularized state; downplayed Islam • Egypt, Syria, Yemen united in 1968; union late broke down • Strongly influenced by Arab-Israeli conflict • Ba’ath Parties in Syria, Iraq strongest Pan-Arab Parties SOUTHWEST ASIA SINCE 1945

3. Arab-Israeli Conflict • 1947:Began over partition of Israel, Arab invasions • 1956: Israeli invasion of the Sinai • 1967: Seven Day War • Egypt planned to annihilate Israel • Israel struck first annihilating armies and airforces of Syria, Egypt, and Jordan • Capture West Bank, Sinai, Jerusalem, Golan Heights • Israelis open West Bank to settlement by Jewish settlers • Founding of Palestinian Liberation Organization • Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians displaced 1947-67 • Camps set up in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, elsewhere • Goal was to destroy Israel, create Arab state in Palestine • Used terrorism as means to an end • 1973 Yom Kippur War nearly destroyed Israel • Israelis recover with US help, key Israeli ally; nearly destroy Egyptian army • Arabs retaliate with Oil Embargo through OPEC • US brokers Camp David Accords ending Egyptian, Israeli hostilities • 1982 Israel invasion of Lebanon to evict PLO attacking Israel • Beginning of the End • Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco agree in principal to Camp David Accords • 1990s • Arab Intifada in West Bank against Israeli occupation • Oslo Accords leads to Israeli withdrawal of most settlers, troops • Israelis hand over much of area to Palestinian Authority • Palestinian self-rule over much of Gaza, West Bank • Issues left unresolved: Israeli security, status of Golan Heights, Jerusalem ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT

4. Muslim revival and Arab disunity • Cold war split Arab-Muslim world; pan-Arab unity did not materialize • Israel became a staunch ally of United States; many Arab-Islamic states allied with USSR • Israel defeated Egypt and Syria in 1967 and in 1973 • Egypt's president, Anwar Sadat, ended alliance with USSR in 1976 • Sadat signed peace treaty with Israel in 1980; was assassinated, 1981 • PLO leader Yasser Arafat, Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin signed peace treaties 1993-1995 • Islamism: revival of Muslim traditions • Reasserting Islamic values in Muslim politics • Resentment at European and American societies • Extremists embraced jihad, or duty to defend Islam from attack; justified terrorism • Represented by Islamic Brotherhood (Islamic world), Hezbollah (Lebanon), Taliban (Afghanistan) • Activities, funding reach around the world • The Iranian revolution, 1979 • CIA helped anticommunist Shah Mohammed Pahlavi gain power, 1953 • Shah supported anti-communism of US, armed Iran to status of a regional power • Became major oil supplier of the US, increasing westernization of Iranian society • Repressive rule overthrown by Islamist followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, 1979 • Khomeini attacked United States for support of the shah • Militants held sixty-nine Americans hostage for 444 days; shut down U.S. military bases • Movement encouraged other Muslims to undertake terrorist actions • Islamic Republic of Iran 1979 – Present is a radical opponent of western influence • Afghanistan • USSR invades in 1980 to prop of pro-Soviet regime which was threatened • Nine year guerrilla warfare follows between Soviets, Muslim guerrillas • USSR withdrew in 1989 leaving Mujahedeen, Taliban in control of radical Muslim state • US destroys Taliban state, invades in 2002 after Taliban supports September 11 terrorist attacks on USA • Pro-Western regime installed • Iran-Iraq war, 1980-1988 • Iraqi president Saddam Hussein launched attack on Iran in 1980 • War dragged on till 1988; killed one million soldiers • Next, Iraqis invaded Kuwait in 1990, inciting Gulf War, 1991 • Gulf Wars 1990-91, 2002-3 and Iraq • Saddam Hussein annexes Kuwait; UN coalition drives him out in 1991 • UN sanctions fail to disarm Iraq; eventually US led effort topples Hussein in 2003 • Democratic, representative regime trying to form now but threatened by civil war, guerrilla war, terrorism ISLAMIC RESURRGENCE

5. Forcing the French out of north Africa • France in Africa • 1950s and 1960s, French granted independence to all its African colonies except Algeria • Two million French settlers in Algeria • Revolt of May 1954 was repressed by French; eight thousand Algerian Muslims died • War in Algeria, 1954-1962 • Algerian nationalists pursued guerrilla warfare against French rule • By 1958, a half-million French soldiers were committed to the conflict • Atrocities on both sides; heavy civilian casualties; Algerian independence, 1962 • Revolutionary writer Franz Fanon urged violence as weapon against colonial racism • Black African nationalism and independence • Growth of African nationalism • Began as grassroots protest against European imperialism • African nationalism celebrated Negritude (blackness), African roots • Obstacles to African independence • Imperial powers assumed Africans were not ready for self-government • White settlers opposed black independence • Anticommunist fears justified interference in African politics • Economic and political instability often hampered postindependent Africa • Freedom and conflict in sub-Sahara Africa • Ghana (Gold Coast) first to gain independence, 1957 • Kwame Nkrumah, nationalist leader, jailed and censored for political actions • Eventually released, Nkrumah became Ghana's first president, 1957 • Side-by-side posters presented Queen Elizabeth and Nkrumah as equals, 1961 • Anticolonial rebellion in Kenya • Violent clashes between native Kikuyu (Mau Mau) and European settlers after 1947 • 1930s and 1940s, Kikuyu pushed off farm lands, reduced to wage slaves • Labeling Mau Mau as communist subversives, Britain gained U.S. support • Kikuyu uprising crushed by superior arms in 1955; twelve thousand Africans killed • Political parties legalized, 1959; Kenya gained independence, 1963 DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA

6. Aftermath of decolonization • Organization of African Unity created 1963 to maintain peace, promote pan-African unity • Artificial boundaries imposed by colonialism were ruled inviolable • Ghana and many other states became one-party military dictatorships • South Africa • Transformation of South Africa • Gained independence in 1901, but denied civil rights to black population • South African economy strong, both mining and industry; prospered during WWII • Black workers demanded political change • Apartheid: harsh legal system imposed in 1948, designed to keep races separate • 87 peercent of South African land was for white residents, others classified by race • African National Congress, led by Nelson Mandela, launched campaign to protest apartheid • Severe government repression provoked international opposition after 1960 • Black agitation and international sanctions brought end to apartheid in 1989 • 1994, under new constitution, Mandela won free election as first black president • Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire) • First prime minister, a Marxist, killed in a CIA-backed coup, 1961 • Dictator Mobutu ruled from 1965 to 1997; plundered Zaire's economy • Mobutu ruled Zaire in dictatorial fashion and amassed huge personal fortune • Lawrence Kabila ousted Mobutu in 1997, changed country's name back to the Congo • Kabila killed, 2001; replaced by his son Joseph; no elections yet • Developing economies of Africa • Africa has 10 percent of world's population but less than 1 percent of industrial output • Rich in minerals, raw materials, agricultural resources • Lacking in capital, technology, foreign markets, and managerial class • Rapid population growth compounds problems AFRICA AFTER 1945

7. Indian National Congress and Muslim League • After WWI, both organizations dedicated to achieving independence • Indian nationalists inspired by Wilson's fourteen Points and the Russian Revolution • Frustrated by Paris Peace settlement: no independence for colonies • British responded to nationalistic movement with repressive measures • Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948), leader of Indian nationalism • Raised as a well-to-do Hindu, studied law in London • Spent twenty-five years in South Africa, embraced tolerance and nonviolence • Developed technique of passive resistance, followed a simple life • Became political and spiritual leader, called the Mahatma ("Great Soul") • Opposed to caste system, especially the exclusion of untouchables • 1920-1922, led Non-Cooperation Movement; 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement • The India Act of 1937 • 1919 British massacre at Amritsar killed 379 demonstrators, aroused public • Repression failed, so the British offered modified self-rule through the India Act • Unsuccessful because India's six hundred princes refused to support • Muslims would not cooperate, wanted an independent state • During World War II • Many Indians sympathetic with Japan: Indian National Army under Bose • Gandhi pursued peaceful non-cooperation • British were very concerned about Indian disloyalty which really never surfaced • US and Roosevelt pushed British to grant India independence • In 1945: India received a seat in UN (although under UK control) SOUTH ASIA 1914 – 1945

8. Indian self-rule • British finally willing to consider independence after WWII • Muslim separatism grew; feared domination by Hindus • Muslim League called a Day of Direct Action in 1946; rioting left six thousand dead • Partition of India and ensuing violence • Gandhi condemned division of India as a "vivisection" • Independent India, 1947, divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India • Ten million refugees moved either to India or Pakistan; one million died in migration • Gandhi assassinated by a Hindu extremist, 30 January 1948 • Conflicts between India and Pakistan • 1947, fought over province of Kashmir; Pakistan lost • Pakistan allied with United States; India accepted aid from both superpowers • India and Pakistan stayed in British Commonwealth; English was official language • Nonalignment emerged as attractive alternative to a cold war alliance • Indian prime minister Nehru favored policy of nonalignment, the "third path" • At Bandung Conference in Indonesia, 1955, twenty-nine nonaligned nations met • Movement lacked unity; many members sought aid from United States or USSR • Stable Indian democracy: exception to Asian pattern of authoritarian rule • Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India, 1966-1977, 1980-1984 • "Green revolution" dramatically increased agricultural yields • Adopted harsh policy of birth control: involuntary sterilization; voted out in 1977 • Reelected in 1980, but faced strong opposition from religious and ethnic groups • Crushed uprising of Sikhs; was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in 1984 • Her son Rajiv Gandhi was elected in 1985, but was assassinated in 1991 • Pakistan • Originally composed of West and East Pakistan; East became Bangladesh in 1972 • Centralized state strongly influenced by military; often unable to control tribes in mountains • Increasingly under influence of Islamic fundamentalists SOUTH ASIA AFTER 1945

9. The Pacific Ocean is the center of world today • Mediterranean Sea was the ocean of the past • Atlantic Ocean was the ocean of the present: 1450 – 1945 • Pacific Ocean is the ocean of the future • 1970 – 1982: US trade with Europe was up 400% • Same time period US trade with Asia Pacific was up 800% • Key Players • China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong • United States, Canada, Australia, Mexico, Chile • 1st Economy of the World: US • 2nd Economy of the World: China • 3rd Economy of the World: Japan • High technology, consumer electronics, computers, and automobiles • Major financial investment of US, China, Japan in each other, region • Impact on Region • Technology has hurt small producers, traditional markets • Shift of industry, agricultural production around Pacific • Massive immigration of Asians to the United States, Canada, Australia, Latin America • Threats to Prosperity • Warfare and conflicts: Korean War, Vietnamese War • Potential for conflict between China and Taiwan PACIFIC RIM

10. The republic, after 1911 • Revolution did not establish a stable republic; China fell into warlords' rule • Through unequal treaties, foreign states still controlled economy of China • Growth of Chinese nationalism • Chinese intellectuals expected Paris Peace Conference to end treaty system • Instead, Paris treaties approved Japanese expansion into China • May 4TH Movement: Chinese youths, intellectuals opposed to imperialism • Some were attracted to Marxism and Leninism; CCP established in 1921 • CCP (Chinese Communist Party) and Guomindang (The Nationalist Party) • CCP leader Mao Zedong advocated women's equality, socialism • Guomindang leader Sun Yat-sen favored democracy and nationalism • Two parties formed alliance, assisted by the Soviet Union, against foreigners • Nationalist China 1912 - 1945 • Civil war after death of Sun Yat-sen, 1925 • Nationalist leader Jiang Jieshi, Mao launched Northern Expedition to reunify China • Successful, Jiang then turned on his communist allies in 1928 • After 1928 spent most of time fighting communists, warlords • Mao emerged as the leader of CCP, developed Maoist ideology • 1934-1935, CCP retreated to Yunan on the Long March to avoid Nationalists • China was mostly peasants: Maoism taps peasants as revolutionary strength • Sets up a peasant commune, state in Northern China, land reform • Nationalists vs. Communists vs. Warlords vs. Japanese 1931 - 1945 CHINA TO 1945

11. Origins of Communist China • Civil war between nationalists and communists resumed, 1945 • Communists armed, supported by USSR • Mao Zedong proclaimed People's Republic of China, 1949 • Social and economic transformation of China • Political reorganization dominated by Communist Party, Chairman Mao • Suspected nationalists were executed or sent to forced labor camps • Five-Year Plan stressing heavy industry • Massive land redistribution at village level • Collective farms with basic health and primary education • Emancipation of women: divorce, abortion, footbinding finally ended • Fraternal cooperation between China and Soviet Union • Both communist; shared common enemy, the United States • Alarmed by U.S. support of Japan, south Korea, and Taiwan • Beijing accepted direction from Moscow in early 1950s • USSR gave military-economic aid, helped seat China on UN Security Council • Cracks in alliance began in late 1950s • USSR gave more economic support to noncommunist countries • Both nations openly competed for influence in Africa and Asia • Rift between the two nations was public by the end, 1964 • Taiwan (Republic of China) • Outmaneuvered, the nationalists under Jiang Jieshi fled to Taiwan in 1948 • Taiwan protected by the US, develops modern industry, major world trading nation • Increasing tensions for reunification with China CHINA 1945 TO PRESENT

12. Mao reunified China under communism • People’s Republic declared in 1949 • Allied with USSR • Annexed Tibet in 1949; border conflicts with India • Supported Communists in Korea, Vietnam, SE Asia • Intervened directly in Korean War to prevent American victory • Great Leap Forward (1958--1961) • Effort to catch up with industrial nations • Modeled after Soviet 5 Year Plans but included grandiose, weird ideas • All land collectivized; farming and industry became communal • Agricultural disaster; great famine followed, 1959--1962 • Great proletarian cultural revolution, 1966--1976 • To root out "revisionism," revitalize the revolutionary fervor • Students became the instruments of revolution against old, elite • Idea was that revolutionary fervor as communist better than science, expertise • Millions subjected to humiliation, persecution, and death • Educated elites targeted; setback for Chinese education and science • Died out after Mao's death in 1976 • Deng's revolution • Deng Xiaoping regained power in 1981; opened China to foreign influence • Welcomed economic, market reforms; remained politically authoritarian • Crushed pro-democracy student demonstration in Tiananmen Square, 1989 • Hong Kong returned to China in 1997: how to absorb democratic city? • The rise of China since the death of Mao Zedong • Late 1970s opened China to foreign investment and technology • Gradual shift from planned communist economy to market economy • Offered vast, cheap labor and huge domestic markets • China joined WTO in 2001 COMMUNISM IN CHINA

13. Japan emerged from World War I as a world power • Plans to acquire Chinese, Russian territory frustrated by US, UK • Signed treaty with United States guaranteeing China's integrity • Participated in the League of Nations but often neutral or hostile • Japanese economy boosted by war: sold munitions to Allies • Prosperity short-lived • Economy slumped during Great Depression • Labor unrest, demands for social reforms • Massive earthquake in 1920s hit Tokyo • Political conflict emerged • Between internationalists, supporters of western-style capitalism, nationalists • Much hostility to foreign influences by nationalists • Attempt to build large navy stopped by Washington Naval Accords • Army increasingly involved in governmental affairs; many young officers seek change • The Mukden incident, 1931, in Manchuria • Chinese unification threatened Japanese interests in Manchuria • Japanese troops destroyed tracks on Japanese railroad, claimed Chinese attack • Incident became pretext for Japanese attack against China • Military, acting without civilian authority, took all Manchuria by 1932 • Japanese dictatorship • Emerged in the 1930s with dominance of government by military • Many of the same trappings of fascism: nationalism, militarism, tradition • Plans drawn up to conquer, control Asia-Pacific JAPAN TO 1945

14. Japan's "economic miracle" • Postwar Japan • Had few resources, no overseas empire • Benefited from U.S. aid, investments • Did not have a large defense budget because of US protection; money to industry • Government dominated by Liberal Democrats who cooperate with businesses • Japan • Pursued export-oriented growth supported by low wages • Began with labor-intensive exports, textiles, iron, and steel • Government supported incentives for trade, innovation, experimentation • Government sponsored research, development for businesses • Companies took care of workers, families with cradle to grave support • Reinvested profits • In capital-intensive industries such as cars, aircraft, shipping, electronics • In technology-intensive production such as telecommunications • Rapid growth, 1960s-1980s • Suffered recession in 1990s • The Little Tigers • In beginning: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan • Joined by Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia • Followed Japanese model of export-driven industry • In 1980s rapid growth; by 1990s highly competitive • Industrial wealth, capitalism, trade led to democratization, pressure for reform DEMOCRATIC ASIA SINCE 1945

15. 1914 – 1940 • French Indochina: Annam, Tonkin, Cochin China, Cambodia, Laos • Dutch (Indonesia), US (Philippines), UK (Malaya, parts of Borneo, Singapore) • Independent Siam (Thailand): border state between French, British • 1940 – 1945 • Japanese occupy whole area within first weeks of World War II • Controlled areas through puppet regimes while exploiting the resources • End of war saw English, French, Dutch determined to restore their colonies • US grants Philippines independence • Vietnam • Fighting the French in Vietnam • Japan's invasion ended French rule; Ho Chi Minh declared independence • France reasserted colonial rule, recaptured Saigon and south Vietnam, 1945 • Retook north by bombing Hanoi and Haiphong; killed at least ten thousand civilians • Ho and followers (Viet Minh) conducted guerrilla warfare from the countryside • Aided by Communist China, Viet Minh defeated the French in 1954 • Geneva Conference and partial independence, 1954 • Vietnam temporarily divided, north and south, at 17th parallel • South Vietnam's leaders delayed elections, feared communist victory • US supported first the French, then the unpopular government of South Vietnam • North Vietnam received assistance from USSR and China • Cold war stalemate • Nationalist-communist (Viet Cong) attacks on government of South Vietnam • President Johnson launched bombing campaign, sent ground troops in 1965 • U.S. troops were trapped in a quagmire; dragged on until 1973 SOUTHEAST ASIA