ARGUMENT Definition

1. ARGUMENTDefinition • Is not always a shouting match, as many people think but is based on reason and logic • Is an appeal to the readers’ intellect • Issues are complex and debatable • Is a path of reasoning aimed at finding the truth or falsehood of an issue under debate

2. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONImportant points to Remember • Both are used together but are not the same thing • Both are often blended • Persuasion is a purpose for writing • Argument is an appeal to the readers’ intellect

3. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 1. To promote change Example: To have computers in every English classroom at Southeast College 2. To oppose a theory Example: Writing a history paper, claiming that antislavery sentiment was not the cause of the Civil War

4. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 3. To arouse sympathy Example: Passing more stringent legislation against people who abuse animals 4. To stimulate interest Example: Soliciting employees at HCC’s six colleges to start a chess club

5. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 5.To promote change Example: To get apartment owners to provide more lighting, on-site security, or gates to surround a complex’s perimeter for tenants 6.To provoke anger Example: To arouse outrage against a proposed tax or an existing one

6. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 7. To support a cause Example: To urge people to contribute to different charities or fundraisers 8. To urge people to take action Example: To get people to vote in an upcoming election; to convince Houstonians to write their senators and legislators to get certain legislation passed

7. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 9. To ask for a raise in salary Example: An employee requests that her salary be increased because of the additional job duties she has acquired when an employee is discharged, laid off or retires, and that employee has been replaced. 10. To ask that a new company policy/procedure be implemented Example: To pay employees for unused sick leave when they retire

8. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONAppeals • Logical • Ethical • Emotional

9. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONDefinition of Appeals Logical – based on facts, statistics, reasons Example: A lawyer who is arguing a case relies on a variety of evidence: eyewitness testimony, using visuals (charts, graphs, photos), reenactments, forensic specialists, experts, audio tapes, and arguing from precedent.

10. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONDefinition of Appeals Ethical – comes from the writer’s character • Depends on one’s ability to convince readers of his/her intelligence, commitment, and knowledge about the issues • Shows that a writer cares about others’ welfare • Shows that a writer respects readers and that they have done their homework • Claims are not exaggerated or excessive • Relies on expert opinions to solidify argument

11. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONDefinition of Appeals Emotional – A message that appeals to the senses and to personal biases and prejudices. Uses connotative language (words that elicit certain feelings when a word is heard) Example: “Corporate athleticism,” or increasing profits, describes the business-minded attitude that the NFL uses today. Based on this thesis, the writer will provide a negative view of the NFL.

12. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONObstacles • World events • Media “brainwashing” • Family influences • Fear of rejection by our peers • Being told our views are wrong, bad, or immoral by so-called “experts”

13. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONElements Most Likely to Convince Readers • The writer’s credentials (competence) • Quality of the reasoning (sound logic and reasonable facts) • The degree to which writers appeal to the readers’ self-interests (benefit to readers)

14. PERSUASIONDefinition and Test for Success Definition: To convince a person to think, act, or behave in a certain way Test for Success: If the person addressed has changed his/her views, actions, or behavior in favor of the speaker or writer Important: Even if a reader’s view has not been changed, one may agree that the evidence is good but not agree with the conclusion.

15. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Reasoning Deductive – direct method • Moves from a broad generalization (thesis) to specific examples evidence) • A conclusion follows from a set of assertions or premises. • If premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. • To challenge an argument, a reader has to evaluate the premises.

16. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Reasoning Deductive – direct method • A conclusion follows from a set of premises or assertions • If premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

17. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Reasoning Inductive – indirect method • Does not prove an argument is true • Convinces reasonable people that the argument is probable • Presents evidence logically by moving through an assortment of data, which leads to a conclusion • Used most often by lawyers, scientists, detectives, and mystery writers

18. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONAssessing Evidence in Inductive Argument • Is it accurate? The facts need to be correct. • Is it relevant? The evidence must be connected to the point being made. • Is it representative? Conclusion must be supported by evidence gathered from a sample that accurately reflects the larger population.

19. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONAssessing Evidence in Inductive Argument • Is it sufficient? There must be enough evidence to satisfy skeptical readers.

20. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONDefinition of Appeals Using similes, metaphors, and imagery Examples: “Our response to sexual predators must balance the extent and intensity of the possible behavior with the probability of its occurrence. An ex-prisoner likely to expose himself on a crowded subway may be a risk we are willing to assume. However, a prisoner with even a moderate probability of sexual torture and murder is not. Such violence is like a rock dropped into a calm pool—the concentric circles spread even after the rock has sunk. (a simile and imagery.) More and more victims will be affected. Sexual predators are sociopaths who are characterized by a fundamental lack of empathy. (metaphor) Source: Sex Predators Can’t Be Saved by Andrew Vachss

21. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Evidence for Claims Facts and statistics • Can be convincing • Opponents can interpret same facts and statistics differently. • Opponents may also cite different facts and statistics to prove their point.

22. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Evidence For Claims Anecdotes: Brief narratives used as illustrations to support a claim. • Stories appeal to emotions and intellect. • Narratives can be very effective in making an argument.

23. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Evidence for Claims Expert opinion: The views of authorities in a given field is powerful support for a claim. However, the expert cited must have the proper credentials on the issue. Example: According to Carl Blyth, an expert on football safety, the head coach’s “attitude and leadership” are the most important factors in creating the balance and the need to win with the safety of players.

24. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONToulmin Method to Analyze Arguments Based on three facets: • Claim – a point or a thesis; an assertion about a topic • Grounds – reasons and evidence (facts, statistics, anecdotes, and expert opinions) • Warrants – assumptions or principles that link the grounds to the claims

25. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONToulmin Method of Analyzing an Argument Statement: The death penalty should be abolished because if it is not abolished, innocent people could be executed. Part 1 – The independent clause is the thesis. Part 2 – The dependent clause presents grounds for the claim. The writer would present stories and statistics of innocent people who have been executed. The argument depends on assumptions that link grounds to the claim: (1) It is wrong to execute innocent people and (2) it is not possible to be completely sure of a person’s guilt.

26. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONFallacy • Definition: Mistakes in logic; faulty reasoning used to reach a conclusion • Results of using a fallacy: Unclear thinking, unclear logic, or trying to deceive readers.

27. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONThe Causes of a Fallacy • Giving too few examples to support an assertion • Not qualifying a broad statement about a group of people or things; not using words like some, most, a few, many, or amajority • Citing examples that misrepresent the assertion

28. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONExample of a Fallacy Major premise: All embezzlers are criminals. Minor premise: All embezzlers are people. Conclusion: Therefore, all people are embezzlers. (Is this true or false?] This three-part argument is known as a syllogism.

29. ARGUMENT/PERSUASION Strategies Refutation – using contradictory evidence to show that a position is false or exposing inadequate reasoning to show that a position cannot be true Defenses – clarifying a position; presenting new arguments to support a position; showing that criticisms of a position are unreasonable or unconvincing

30. ARGUMENT/PERSUASION Common Logical Fallacies Non sequitur – a conclusion that does not logically follow from evidence presented or one based on irrelevant evidence Example: Students who default on their loans are not responsible people. (Students who default may be faced with extenuating (illness, unemployment), making them late on their payment.

31. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Hasty Generalization: a form of improper induction that draws a conclusion based on little evidence. Example: No one can logically conclude that two bad teachers add up to a bad school or that one or two failing grades on assignments mean that students cannot pass a course.

32. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Sweeping Generalization: a statement that cannot adequately be supported no matter how much evidence is supplied. Absolutes, such as the one that follows, are so sweeping that they do not allow for any exceptions. Example: Everyone should exercise. (Most people would agree with this statement, but are all people able to exercise? No, those who are bedridden, wheel-chair bound, or those with a heart condition cannot. However, they can exercise their mind by playing games, reading, doing puzzles, and solving challenging problems in astrophysics as Dr. Stephen Hawking does, even though he has ALS, a disease causing paralysis. .

33. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Guilt by association: discrediting a person because of problems with one’s associates, friends, or family. Example: Martin’s friend is an ex-felon, so Martin cannot be trusted. (Why should Martin be held accountable for his friend’s actions?]

34. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies False analogy: A comparison in which a surface similarity masks a significant difference. Example: Governments and businesses both work within a budget to accomplish their goals. Just as businesses must focus on the bottom line, so should government. [Is the government’s only goal to make a profit? Does government instead have other, more important goals?]

35. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Stacking the deck – slanting evidence to support a position Example: Nine out of ten doctors have endorsed this product, so it is guaranteed to work for consumers. [Which doctors were interviewed? Were they all hired by the company that makes the product?]

36. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies False authority: Presenting testimony of an unqualified person to support a claim. Example: As the actor who plays Dr. Fine on Emergency Room, I recommend this weight-loss drug because … [Is an actor qualified to judge the benefits and dangers of a diet drug?]

37. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Red herring – An argument that diverts attention from the issue by concentrating on something irrelevant. Example: Hemingway’s book Death in the Afternoon is unsuccessful because it glorifies the brutal sport of bullfighting. [Why can’t a book about a brutal sport be successful? The statement is irrelevant.]

38. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Begging the question: circular reasoning that assumes the truth of a questionable opinion Example: The president’s poor relationship with the military has weakened the armed forces. (Does the president have a poor relationship with the armed forces, and if so, would it be the only factor that could weaken the armed forces?)

39. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Hasty generalization: a conclusion on inadequate evidence Example: Temperatures across the United States last year exceeded the fifty-year average by two degrees, thus proving that global warming is a reality. [Is this evidence enough to prove this broad conclusion?]

40. ARGUMENT/PERSUASION Common Logical Fallacies Bandwagon – An argument that depends on going along with the crowd on the false assumption that truth can be determined by a popularity contest Example: Everybody knows that Hemingway is preoccupied with the theme of death in his novels. [How do we know that “everybody” agrees with this statement?]

41. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Ad hominem: A personal attack on disagrees with you rather than on the person’s argument.” Example: The district attorney is a lazy political hack, so naturally she opposes streamlining the court system. [Even if the DA usually supports her party’s position, does that make her wrong about this issue?]

42. ARGUMENT/PERSUASION Common Logical Fallacies Circular reasoning – An argument that restates the point rather than supporting it with reasonable evidence. Example: The wealthy should pay more taxes because taxes should be higher for people with higher incomes. [Why should wealthy people pay more taxes? The rest of the statement does not answer this questions; it just restates the position.]

43. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Either/or fallacy: The idea that a complicated issue can be resolved by resorting to one of only two options when in reality, there are additional issues. Example:Either the state legislature will raise taxes or our state’s economy will deteriorate. Are there more than two options?

44. ARGUMENT/PERSUASION Common Logical Fallacies Equivocation: when the meaning of a key word or phrase shifts during an argument. Example: It is not in the public interest for the public to lose interest in politics. Although clever, the shift in meaning of the term public interest may trivialize an important issue.

45. ARGUMENT/PERSUASION Presenting Evidence • For a supportive audience: Place the evidence from the most important to the least important. • For a hostile audience: Place the evidence from the least important to the most important. In other words, save your best and most compelling piece of evidence until the next to the last paragraph.

46. ARGUMENT/PERSUASION Titles • A title is compelling. • A title is usually a fragment. • A title suggests what the essay will be about. • A title may consist of a subtitle followed by a major title. Example: Affirmative Action: Leveling the Playing Field for Minorities or Using Quotas to Fill Colleges and Jobs?

47. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to Argue • Figure out what is at issue. People argue abut issues, not topics. Try turning your topic into a problem by asking questions about it. Are there indications that all is not as it should be? Have things always been this way, or have they changed for the worse? From what perspectives-- economic, social, political, cultural, medical, or geographic can the argument be made?

48. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to Argue • Develop a reasonable stance that negotiates differences. You want readers to respect your intelligence and trust your judgment. Conducting research will make you informed; reading other people’s views, and thinking critically about them can enhance your thoughtfulness.

49. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to Argue • Find out what others have to say about the issue, and make it as a part of your purpose to negotiate the differences between your position and theirs. • Payattention to the places where you disagree with others’ views, but also note what you have in common.

50. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to Argue • Always remember that two views on the same can be similar yet not identical, or different yet not completely opposite. • Avoid language that may promote prejudice or fear. • Also, avoid misrepresentations of others and ideas and personal attacks on someone’s character