The Korean War: 1950-1953

1. The Korean War: 1950-1953

2. The Korean War • The Main Idea • Cold War tensions finally erupted in a shooting war in 1950. The United States confronted a difficult challenge defending freedom halfway around the world. • Reading Focus • What was the situation in China & Korea before the war began in 1950? • What were the circumstances that led to the start of the Korean War? • What role did the UN, China & the U.S.S.R. play in the Korean War? • What were the key battles of the Korean War? • How did the fighting in the Korean War end?

3. Growing Interest in China • People’s Republic of China: • In the 1940’s, China was embroiled in a civil war. Nationalists Led by Chiang Kai-shek Communists Led by Mao Zedong

4. The U.S. gave the Chiang Kai-shek millions of dollars, but the communists won the war.

5. Chinese poster saying: "Chairman Mao is the Red sun of our hearts.", 1966

6. “Quotations From Chairman Mao” (frequently referred to as the “Little Red Book”).

7. Mao Zedong Quotations: On Class Struggle “Our stand is that of the proletariat and of the masses.” Portrait of Chairman Mao Zedong, Tiananmen Square, Beijing

8. Mao Zedong Quotations: On Socialism “The socialist system will eventually replace the capitalist system; this is an objective law independent of man's will. However much the reactionaries try to hold back the wheel of history, eventually revolution will take place and will inevitably triumph.” Portrait of Chairman Mao Zedong, Tiananmen Square, Beijing

9. Mao Zedong Quotations: On Serving the People “Our duty is to hold ourselves responsible to the people. Every word, every act and every policy must conform to the people's interests, and if mistakes occur, they must be corrected - that is what being responsible to the people means.” Portrait of Chairman Mao Zedong, Tiananmen Square, Beijing

10. China became a communist country, and Chiang Kai-shek and his forces fled to Taiwan.

11. Taiwan students stage an anti-independence protest. Taipei, Taiwan, 2003

12. Divided Korea • After World War II, Japan’s former colony of Korea was divided into two occupation zones along the 38th parallel with the Soviet zone in the north and the U.S. zone in the south • Before the occupation forces departed, an anticommunist regime was established in the south and a communist one in the north

13. The United States in Asia • The U.S. was uncertain as to the extent of its commitment in Asia • It knew its umbrella definitely covered Japan, Okinawa, and the Philippines, but it was unclear about Taiwan, South Korea, and Southeast Asia • Believing the U.S. did not intend to protect South Korea, the USSR allowed the North Koreans to invade the south in 1950 Secretary of State Dean Acheson’s speech to the National Press Club omitted South Korea from the US “defensive perimeter”

14. U.S. & Soviet Involvement in Korea Before the War • South Korea was unstable economically • The United States feared that South Korea would fall to communism • U.S. government helped to build up the South Korean military • Both the U.S. and the Soviets removed their troops from Korea in 1949.

15. Korea Before the War After World War II, Japanese-occupied Korea was temporarily divided into northern and southern parts.

16. Korea Before the War The Soviet Union controlled Korea north of the 38th parallel. The Soviet Union established a communist government in North Korea. North Korea called itself the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. Its first leader was Kim Il Sung.

17. Korea Before the War The United States would be in charge of Korea south of the 38th parallel. In South Korea, the United States promoted a democratic system. The Republic of Korea was led by president Syngman Rhee.

18. In June of 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea. • The UN became involved and asked for an immediate cease fire • The Soviets were boycotting the U.N. due to the denial of admittance of China to the world governing body

19. North Korea Attacks: June 25, 1950 • North Korean army crossed the 38th parallel with an invasion force totaling over 90,000 troops and 150 Soviet-built tanks • By the night of June 28, Seoul had fallen and the South Korean forces were in disarray • South Korea appealed to the United Nations for assistance • The UN passed a resolution recommending that “the members of the United Nations furnish such assistance to the Republic of Korea as may be necessary to repel the armed attack and to restore international peace and security to the area.”

20. The United Nations Response • Truman asked the United Nations to approve the use of force to stop the North Korean invasion. • As a member of the UN Security Council, the Soviet Union could have vetoed UN involvement in the war, but instead Moscow was boycotting the Security Council at the time in protest of the UN’s failure to seat a representative of the newly established People’s Republic of China • In the absence of the U.S.S.R., the UN passed a resolution sending a military force to South Korea • Truman sent American ground troops to Korea. • The troops sent to Korea were to be a United Nations force. • The force was predominately American with Douglas MacArthur as the Supreme Commander • There were also substantial contributions from the UK, Canada and other Commonwealth countries. • Instead of calling this a war, the whole effort was referred to as a UN police action.

21. U.S. Armed Forces in 1950 10 Army divisions (4 in Japan) 48 USAF air groups 331 combatants (64 in Pacific) 2 Marine divisions (-) North Korean People’s Army (NKPA) 14 Divisions (9 in invasion force) Soviet trained, armed and advised 150 tanks, almost 100 modern aircraft Force Comparison

22. Task Force Smith • To stem the North Korea advance, the US deployed “Task Force Smith,” a delaying force of two reinforced rifle companies to Pusan • MacArthur thought this “arrogant display of strength” would cause the North Koreans to take pause and slow their aggression Elements of Task Force Smith arriving at Taejon

23. Task Force Smith • Task Force Smith began occupying defensive positions on July 5 at 3:00 am • At 7:00 they began seeing enemy movement • At 8:16 they began firing artillery • At 2:30 the commander decided to withdraw • When LTC Smith arrived at Ch’onan on July 6, he counted 185 men • He began with 540 • After all stragglers returned, the total loss to TF Smith was 35%

24. Implications of Task Force Smith • Task Force Smith has become the poster child for the cost of military unpreparedness • “No more Task Force Smiths” • GEN Gordon Sullivan, Army Chief of Staff, 1991-1995 (administered the post Desert Storm Army downsizing)

25. “Hollow Army” World War II peak Army strength was 8,268,000 89 combat divisions in June 1945 June 1950 strength was about 591,000 (1/14 the peak World War II size) 10 active combat divisions But to keep them fielded, one battalion from each infantry regiment and one firing battery from each field artillery battalion had been eliminated This move effectively reduced combat power by 1/3

26. Far East Command (FEC) 108,500 troops under MacArthur 4 infantry divisions in Japan (7th, 24th, 25th and 1st Cavalry) Authorized peacetime divisions strength was 12,500 (13,500 for the 25th ) Authorized wartime strength was 18,900 3 of the 4 divisions in Japan had about 11,000 men In addition to the missing infantry and artillery battalions each Lacked three anti aircraft artillery batteries Lacked the regimental tank companies Had only a company of M24 Chaffee light tanks in place of the divisional tank battalion Estimated the divisions could field 62% of normal infantry firepower, 69% of normal anti-aircraft capability, and 14% of armored support

27. Equipment in FEC Mostly outdated World War II equipment and much of it was unserviceable Of 18,000 jeeps only 8,000 were serviceable Of 13,780 2 1/2 ton trucks, only 4,441 were serviceable Had none of the new 3.5 inch antitank rocker launchers Only the 2.36 inch Bazooka which had proved inadequate in 1944 – 1945 Hydraulic fluid for recoil mechanisms in the M24 tanks had been on backorder for two years, so most of their 75 mm guns had never been fired Some men were wearing tennis shoes because of a lack of boots ¼ of the small arms were defective

28. Training Problems Occupation duties took precedence over training No unit training above the company level had taken place in Eighth Army before April 1949 Limited maneuver area and an annual personnel turnover rate of 43% impeded training The four divisions were rated as 65% to 84% combat ready Some senior officers felt that 40% was more realistic U.S. troops parade across the Yoshida Bridge

29. Support for South Korea • June 27th-The U.N. Security Council labeled North Korea as an aggressor and offered support to South Korea • The U.S. sponsored this resolution • U.S. forces entered South Korea under the direction General MacArthur • 15 other countries gave military and monetary support, however no other country gave the same support that the United States did.

30. The U.N. sent an international force to Korea in order to push the North Koreans out of South Korea. United Nations forces fighting to recapture Seoul, South Korea, from communist invaders, September 1950.

31. MacArthur at Inch'on landing • U.S. General Douglas MacArthur led the U.N. force, approximately 80% of which were U.S. soldiers.

32. Americans pushed to the Pusan Perimeter …the North Koreans had pushed the U.N. forces to the southeast corner of the peninsula, where they dug in around the port of Pusan…a "grim-faced and business-like" MacArthur visited Eighth Army commander Walton Walker. A witness said that MacArthur told Walker, "There will be no Dunkirk in this command. To retire to Pusan will be unacceptable." Gen. Walker gave the "stand or die" order, and over the next six weeks a desperate, bloody struggle ensued as the North Koreans threw everything they had at American and ROK (South Korean) forces in an effort to gain complete control over Korea.

33. Inchon With what is widely considered the crowning example of his military genius, MacArthur completely changed the course of the war overnight by ordering -- over nearly unanimous objections -- an amphibious invasion at the port of Inchon, near Seoul…The Americans quickly gained control of Inchon, recaptured Seoul within days, and cut the North Korean supply lines. American and ROK forces broke out of the Pusan Perimeter and chased the retreating enemy north. On September 27, after Washington had consulted with its allies regarding war aims, MacArthur received permission to pursue the enemy into North Korea. ROK forces crossed the 38th parallel on October 1, opening a fateful new chapter in the conflict.

34. Pusan Perimeter:June 27 to September 15 • The American forces were unprepared for the North Korean attack • By the end of July, the North Koreans had pushed the U.N. forces to the southeast corner of the peninsula, where they dug in around the port of Pusan.

35. Inchon (Operation Chromite) September 15 • MacArthur completely changed the course of the war overnight by ordering -- over nearly unanimous objections -- an amphibious invasion at the port of Inchon, near Seoul • The Americans quickly gained control of Inchon, recaptured Seoul within days, and cut the North Korean supply lines • American and ROK forces broke out of the Pusan Perimeter and chased the retreating enemy north

36. Inchon and Selected Principles of War • Surprise • Inchon was an unlikely landing site because of strong tides and mud flats • Maneuver • Amphibious turning movement • Offensive • Had to do something to reverse Pusan situation and gain the initiative • Objective • Landing at Inchon facilitated capture of Seoul; both the South Korean capital and the site of important road and railroad intersections

37. Synergy Simultaneity and depth Anticipation Balance Leverage Timing and tempo Operational reach and approach Forces and functions Arranging operations Centers of gravity Direct versus indirect Decisive points Culmination Termination Elements of Operational Design

38. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Operational reach and approach • The distance over which military power can mass effects and be employed decisively. • As the North Koreans moved south, they overextended their lines of communication. • Conversely, shorter American lines of communication allowed the strengthening of the Pusan perimeter.

39. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Culmination • The point in time and space at which an attacker’s combat power no longer exceeds that of the defender • Because of operational reach, by August 23, numerical parity between the two forces north of Pusan was surpassed in favor of the Americans • The NKPA had reached its culminating point while Eighth Army was getting stronger • UN combat forces at this point outnumbered the North Koreans, 92,000 to 70,000

40. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Direct versus indirect • Where direct attack means attacking into an opponent’s strength, commanders should seek an indirect approach. • MacArthur’s concept was to “rely upon strategic maneuver to overcome the great odds against me… [T]he alternative is a frontal attack which can only result in a protracted and expensive campaign.” • Amphibious turning movement

41. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Center of gravity • Those characteristics, capabilities, or sources of power from which a military force derives its freedom of action, physical strength, or will to fight. • If the enemy CoG was the North Korean People’s Army, how did Operation Chromite succeed when it took place some 140 miles north of the main NPKA forces?

42. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • ….. by focusing on a critical vulnerability, the enemy lines of communication • “The vulnerability of the enemy is his supply position.” • Douglas MacArthur Seoul railroad yards burning after Air Force dropped napalm, September 26, 1950.

43. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Critical vulnerabilities are “critical requirements or components thereof which are deficient, or vulnerable to neutralization, interdiction, or attack (moral/physical harm) in a manner achieving decisive or significant results, disproportional to the military resources applied.” Bombed North Korean railcars Sept 21, 1950

44. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Decisive points • A point, if retained, that provides a commander with a marked advantage over his opponent. • Seoul was decisive both for its symbolic value as the capital and as the most critical node in the supply line of the enemy attack. Seoul railroad yards burning after Air Force dropped napalm, September 26, 1950

45. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Simultaneity and depth • The simultaneous application of power against key adversary capabilities and sources of strength. • Air Force, Navy, and Marine Air struck targets ranging from the enemy’s strategic marshalling areas to tactical forces • Included both the amphibious turning movement and the breakout from Pusan

46. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Simultaneity and Depth • “The deep envelopment based on surprise, which severs the enemy’s supply lines, is and always has been the most decisive maneuver of war. A short envelopment which fails to envelop and leaves the enemy’s supply system intact merely divides your own forces and can lead to heavy losses and even jeopardy.” • Douglas MacArthur

47. Inchon and Selected Elements of Operational Design • Termination • Knowing when to terminate military operations and how to preserve achieved advantages. • Success led MacArthur to continue attack into North Korea; a strategic miscalculation that ultimately led to his relief.

48. Split Power • By September the North Koreans had pushed the U.S. and South Korean forces into a retreat • September 15, 1950, General MacArthur led a counterattack and recaptured Seoul, which is South Korea’s capital • The UN and U.S. forces were hit with a counterattack from the North Koreans and eventually had to settle with a defensive line at the 38th parallel

49. China’s Involvement • China aided North Korea in late November. • Due to China’s involvement, General MacArthur called for a major expansion of the war. His proposal included: • Blockading China’s coast • Invading the interior of China

50. Approaching the Yalu • MacArthur continued to push north, ignoring threats of Chinese intervention • On October 25, the Chinese army attacked after having infiltrated into North Korea • After suffering setbacks, the U.N. forces stabilized their lines by November 5 • Chinese withdrew northward • MacArthur launched a great offensive toward the end of November, which he optimistically hoped would end the war in Korea