3. Intercultural theories

1. 3. Intercultural theories Theories of International Tourism

2. 0. Objectives • After completing this chapter you should be able to: • Identify theories related to intercultural interaction and communication. • Identify variables that influence intercultural interaction and communication. • Understand the influence of culture on social interaction and communication. • Draw the models of intercultural interaction and communication. Theories of International tourism

3. Introduction Intercultural interaction and communication theories seek to understand how people from different countries and cultures interact, communicate, and perceive the world around them. Most of these theories relate to the management of social interaction and communication for the purpose of creating meaning across cultures. Intercultural theories are of particular importance to international tourism due to the rapid increase in the number of tourists from different cultural backgrounds. Theories of International tourism

4. 1. Communication Resourcefulness Theory (CRT) Cognitive Resources (knowledge) Affective Resources (motivation) Social interaction with culturally different strangers Culture Behavioral Resources (skill) The CRT refers to the ability of the individual to use three types of resources in order to communicate appropriately and effectively in diverse social situations. Knowledge means knowing what behavior is best suited for a given situation. Motivation means having the desire to communicate in a competent manager. Skill means having the ability to apply the best suited behavior in the given context. Theories of International tourism

5. 2. Episode Representation Theory (ERT) Cognitive Intercultural Episodes Intimacy Involvement Friendliness Self-concept Confidence Activity Positive and Negative evaluation of encounter Task/relationship Orientation Anxiety Fear Cultural values Intercultural Encounter and communication Culture Social skills The ERT assumes that those who are involved in intercultural encounters and communication differ in terms of cognitive representation of social episodes. Theories of International tourism

6. 3. Expectations Theory (ET) Culture Knowledge Social roles Beliefs Attitudes Expectations Prior interaction Stereotypes External factors Social status Expressive factors Self-concept Indicative factors Interaction Communication This theory argues that social behavior and communication are influenced by people’s expectations about others’ behavior, in particular how others who receive their message will respond to what they say. Theories of International tourism

7. 3. Expectations Theory (ET) Social status also determines expectations about others. Social status is determined by external factors (e.g. race, ethnicity, gender, attractiveness, education, occupation, income), expressive factors (e.g. eye contact, speech style, dialect), and Indicative factors (someone’s statement that he/she grew up in a high/low status family). Culture plays an important role in how people assess their status. Theories of International tourism

8. 4. Cultural Identity Negotiation Theory(CINT) Focus on cultural identities of different people Comparison, negotiation and challenge of cultural identities Negotiation of opinions, norms, and meanings Interpretation of meanings Understanding symbols and meanings Agreement as to the meanings Enhancement of cultural identities This theory argues that by interacting and communicating with those who are culturally different, people negotiate stereotypes, opinions, norms, and meanings of, for example, concepts of time, feelings, or activities, which differ from one culture to another. Theories of International tourism

9. 5. Meaning of Meaning Theory The Meaning of Meaning Theory argues that misunderstanding takes place when people assume words have direct connections with their referent. However, words alone mean nothing. Meaning is created by the way people use words. In order to understand meanings, people use definitions, metaphors, language, or examples. Similar cultural background, a common past, history, and traditions facilitate understanding the meaning and reduce misunderstanding. Theories of International tourism

10. 6. Network Theory in Intercultural Communication J I F Individual K D H B L G E M A C N Social Network Theory (SNT) Network Theory in Intercultural Communication has its origin in the Social Network Theory, which suggests that individuals are embedded in a structure or network of social relationships and are tied by their values, visions, ideas, friends, kinships, race, ethnicity, gender, dislikes and likes, conflicts, jobs, sexual relations, work relations, etc. Theories of International tourism

11. 7. Taxonomic Approach (TA) A continuum of communication interculturalness Least intercultural (accurate communication) Most intercultural (inaccurate communication) worldviews normative patterns code systems relationships very different very similar culture The TA to intercultural communication establishes similarities and differences among participants in communication. The degree of difference is referred to as the level of homogeneity/heterogeneity of the participants and is used to classify the differences along a continuum of homogeneity/heterogeneity. This continuum indicates the levels of interculturalness of communication. Theories of International tourism

12. 8. Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUMT) The AUMT has its origin in the Uncertainty Reduction Theory, according to which individuals seek information to reduce uncertainty. In a cross-cultural context, the AUMT refers to communication between strangers, usually those from different cultural groups. When the individuals experience uncertainty at too high a level, they feel uncomfortable and try to reduce uncertainty by searching for information about the strangers. Theories of International tourism

13. 8. Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUMT) Culture Intercultural Communication Large cultural differences Large cultural similarities The self High Uncertainty High Anxiety Motivation to interact with strangers Low Uncertainty Low Anxiety Reactions to strangers Cognitive capacity Decrease in communication Increase in communication Social categorization of strangers Uncertainty and Anxiety Management Situation processes Information search Increase in non-verbal behavior Connections with strangers Theories of International tourism

14. 9. Stranger Theory The Stranger Theory is a sub-theory of Gudykunst’s AUMT. The Stranger Theory claims that strangers are more inclined to notice and sterotype members of the host society. Strangers tend to overestimate the influence of cultural identity on peoples’ behavior in a host society, and disregard individual differences. As a result, cultural conflicts appear. Theories of International tourism

15. 10. Face-Negotiation Theory According to a Face-Negotiation Theory, whenever two people from different cultural backgrounds meet for the first time, they develop feeling of uncertainty and anxiety. As a result, they develop strategies to avoid conflict that could be generated by these feelings. Members of collectivistic high-context cultures, who are concerned about others, saving mutual face and belonging to a group, try to avoid conflicts or seek compromise. People from individualistic low-context cultures who are concerned about the self, self-face, and independence, try to dominate and solve a problem. Theories of International tourism

16. 11. Intercultural Adaption Theory (IAT) Power territorial advantage social status Goals purpose motivation agreement cooperation Intercultural Adaptation Change in attitude and perceptions Knowledge, learning Perception modification Future intercultural behavior Intercultural adaptation refers to the adjustment of behavior to decrease the probability of being misunderstood by someone from a different culture. Theories of International tourism

17. 12. Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) Convergence (decreasing communications distance) Socio-psychological context Communication Behavior/Style Communicators’ characteristics Divergence (increasing communications distance) Situational factors: Social-psychological state Initial orientation Addressee focus Interactional strategies Reactions(labeling and attributions) Evaluations Maintenance (maintaining communications distance) (added in the expanded model) The CAT examines the way individuals change their communication style while interacting during cross-cultural encounters. The theory analyzes the motivations and consequences of what happens when two speakers change their communication styles. Theories of International tourism

18. 13. Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMMT) Verbal and non-verbal behavior Speech acts Episodes Relationships Life script Cultural pattern Cross-Cultural Communication The CMMT is based on theory of Pearce and Cronen(1980) that argues that people who are interacting socially construct the meaning of their conversation and see the social world depending on specific situations and contexts. According to the CMMT, the meaning can be created and understood by attaining some coherence and coordination. The meaning can be created on six contextual levels: (1) Verbal and non-verbal behavior, (2) Speech acts, (3) Episodes, (4) Relationships, (5) Life script, (6) Cultural pattern. Theories of International tourism

19. 14. Constructivist Theory (CT) CT argues that through processes of accommodation and assimilation to a new environment, individuals develop new experiences, learn, and construct new knowledge. When individuals assimilate to a new environment, they incorporate their new experiences into their existing beliefs. When individuals’ new experiences contradict their beliefs they may change their perceptions of the experiences and knowledge of the external world. Theories of International tourism

20. Summary Several intercultural theories can be used to explain communication behavior in international and global contexts. However, these theories are of Western origin. It is questionable whether they can be applied in all cultures. Each theory stands alone; no effort has been made to integrate them. There are many more variables that could be included in each model to explain the concept of successful intercultural communication and encounters. More theories from disciplines such as psychology, social psychology, intercultural communication, marketing, or management should be drawn to arrive at one intercultural communication and interaction theory that international researchers and theorists can agree upon. More reference should be made to cultural differences in the various models. Theories of International tourism