Making your Paragraphs Flow

1. Making your ParagraphsFlow

2. Coherence and Cohesion in Academic Essays An essay is coherent (it ‘sticks together’) if: • Its parts are unified (eg the paragraphs are about the same main idea) • The essay seems logical (1 part flows into the other)

3. Transitions ‘Cohesion devices are words and phrases within a sentence, between sentences in a paragraph, and between paragraphs that unite the paragraph or essay (…). These words or short phrases establish relationships between parts of sentences, between sentences, between topic sentences and thesis statements, and between paragraphs’. (Reid 2000, 116)

4. 4 common cohesion techniques • Pronouns • This/these + noun • Paragraph Hooks • Signposts

5. Using Pronouns to signal transition within and between sentences • ‘When James came to N.T.U., he found that people were more friendly than he had anticipated’. • ‘Students should read more if they wish to get good marks. However, they are often working during times when they should be reading’.

6. Using ‘this/these + summary word or phrase’ to signal transition between sentences • ‘ESL lecturers know that students need to understand the difference between formal and informal language. However, this understanding cannot usually be acquired quickly’. • ‘In recent years the number of students applying to Ph.D. programs has increased steadily, while the number of places has remained constant. This situation has resulted in intense competition for admission’.

7. Using ‘this/these + summary word or phrase’ to signal transition between paragraphs ‘A further criticism often levelled at postmodernism is that it gives us no way of distinguishing between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ forms of knowledge. (Paragraph continues for another 4 sentences). Thiscriticism of postmodernism is, perhaps, based on a misunderstanding of ‘responsibility’. (Steans and Pettiford 2001, 149).

8. Paragraph Hooks: Repeating Key Words or Phrases within Paragraphs ‘Atmospheric air pollutionof our environment has occurred for centuries, but has become a significant health problem only within the last century. Air pollutioncontributes to respiratory disease and to lung cancer in particular. Other health problems directly related to air pollutants include heart disease, eye irritation and severe allergies’. (Reid 2000, 116)

9. Paragraph Hooks: the Repetition of Key words or Phrases between Paragraphs (…) dependency theory can be considered a variant of structuralist thought because it suggests that we can only understand (…) the world economy in relation to the world economic system as a whole. Dependency theory can also be considered a form of economic determinism. (Steans and Pettiford 2001, 81).

10. Signposts Relate what you are going to say next with what you have said previously. (Basically, you are telling the reader what you are doing /where you are going) .

11. When might you use a signpost? To show: • Explanation: That is, … • Addition:In addition to this, … • Cause – Effect: Consequently, … • Conclusion/Summation– In sum,… • Counter-argument – However, …

12. Group Task 1: What other signposts do you know which tell your reader you are: • Explaining something further • Adding to a point • Explaining the causes and/or implications of a point • Summarizing or concluding a point • Presenting a counter-argument?

13. Explanation:in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, specifically, for instance, for example Addition:also, furthermore, in addition, moreover, at the same time, in fact, indeed Cause -effect:for this reason, accordingly, as a result, consequently, as a consequence, hence, otherwise, therefore, thus, Summarizing:briefly, on the whole, in short, in summary, in sum, on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally Transitions Between & Within Paragraphs

14. When might you use a signpost? To show: • Comparison – Similarly, … • Contrast – Conversely, … • Sequence – First, …; second, …; third, …

15. Contrast conversely, instead, on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, nonetheless, in contrast, on the contrary Comparison: Similarly, likewise, in much the same way, compared to Sequence:at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, in turn, next, then, while, earlier, simultaneously, in conclusion When might you use a signpost?

16. Further Reading • Reid, Joy (2000) The Process of Composition, New York: Longman • Crème, P. and Lea, M. R. (1997) Writing at University : a Guide for Students, Buckingham: Open University Press, 131-3 • Uvic Writer’s site on transitions: http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/ParagraphTransitions.html • http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/parag/parag.htm • http://www.ssdd.uce.ac.uk/learner/writing/writingframe.htm

17. Task (See handout) How do the following authors ensure that their paragraphs flow well? Underline and explain the cohesion devices they use. The extract is from Steans, J. and Pettiford, L. (2001), International Relations: Perspectives and Themes, London: Longman, 152

18. Feminist Thought Most definitions of feminism centre on the demand for equality between the sexes or equal rights for women. For this reason, students new to the study of feminism and IR often assume that it is about women. As we will see below, feminists do have much to say on the subject of sexual equality and women’s rights. However, this narrow definition does not fully reflect the richness and breadth of feminist thought. Equality and equal rights issues have never been the sole focus of feminism. Furthermore, as with other perspectives, there are different ‘strands’ of feminist thought and this is reflected within what might be broadly termed ‘feminist International relations’.

19. Feminist Thought (cont.) In this chapter, we do not intend to gloss over the differences in feminist thought completely. On the contrary, we emphasise the different intellectual roots of feminist thought in the origins section and, periodically, we draw your attention to differences within feminist thought in the sections on assumptions and themes, when it is useful and appropriate to do so. However, as in other chapters, our aim here is to simplify as much as possible. At this stage we will only try to

20. Feminist Thought (cont.) provide you with a basic vocabulary which will equip you to undertake more in-depth study. While standpoint feminist and postmodern feminist ideas are drawn upon throughout the chapter, for the most part the discussion is informed by liberal and critical feminisms. However, we hope that, in his way, by the en of this chapter, you will have some sense of the nuances of feminist thought and its overall critique of traditional approaches to IR.

21. Questioning Academic Discourse Vivian Zamelhttp://www.nyu.edu/education/teachlearn/ifte/zamel2.htm The tendency to categorize academic discourse and the discourses of particular communities can lead to theoretical frameworks and instructional models that oversimplify our understanding of academic work and reduce it to a fixed idea that does not reflect reality. One illustration of that reality is Walvoord and McCarthy's (1990) rich and detailed naturalistic study in which the authors collaborated with faculty across four disciplines, collecting observational notes, examining assignments and drafts of student writing, conducting interviews with teachers and students, and studying logs kept by teachers and students.

22. Questioning Academic Discourse Vivian Zamel (2) Underlying this study is the assumption that "language processes must be understood in terms of the contexts in which they occur" (p. 21) (…). This study reveals the complex array of factors, such as individual teachers' methods, intentions, and expectations and individual students' approaches to and interpretations of assignments, which shape the work of these classrooms and often give rise to the difficulties students experience as they struggle to meet their teachers' expectations. Importantly, by examining these factors within each classroom, these teachers come to understand the (…) critical role that writing plays in helping students learn about the work of academic disciplines.