Research Methods CIRCLE Research Training Programme 2008

1. Research MethodsCIRCLE Research Training Programme 2008 Research philosophy

2. Session outline • Why ‘philosophy’ ? • Overview of research philosophies • Some more common philosophical approaches • How to determine your own research philosophy • Let’s philosophise

3. Why philosophy ? • All research is based on assumptions • about how the world is perceived • about how we can best come to understand it. • Nobody really knows how we can best understand the world • Philosophers have been arguing about it for 1000s of years, • For us, as researchers, need to consider how we know about the world around us. What is our philosophical approach to knowledge?

4. Epistemologyvs Methodology • Epistemology is ‘how we come to know’ • Methodology is ‘how we come to know’ • Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge • Methodology is the practical ways, the methods used to gain knowledge • Inextricably linked of course

5. One philosophical view - positivism • the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience • study what we can observe and measure • Impossible to know about anything else • deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can test • empiricism -- the idea that observation and measurement is the core of the scientific endeavour • Main method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observation What makes this view of the world attractive? Why have many researchers moved away from this approach?

6. The enlightenment?Post-positivism • Rejection of positivist ideas has lead to an array of alternative approaches One end of post-positivism • critical realism - there is a reality independent of our thinking about it that science can study. Recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable The other post-positivist extreme • Subjectivism - there is no external reality . It’s all in our heads!

7. Post-positivism generally • Multiple measures and observations, each of which may possess different types of error, • triangulation across these multiple errorful sources to try to understand better what's happening in reality. • all observations are theory-laden • All researchers are inherently biased by their cultural experiences, world views etc • Most post-positivists are constructivists who believe that we each construct our view of the world based on our perceptions of it • objectivity by triangulation across multiple fallible perspectives. Thus, objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon

8. Objectivity without positivism? “ The best way for us to improve the objectivity of what we do is to do it within the context of a broader contentious community of truth-seekers (including other scientists) who criticize each other's work. The theories that survive such intense scrutiny are a bit like the species that survive in the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory of knowledge and holds that ideas have 'survival value' and that knowledge evolves through a process of variation, selection and retention). They have adaptive value and are probably as close as our species can come to being objective and understanding reality” William Trochim, (2002) Research Methods Knowledgebase

10. Phenomenology • Phenomenology is sometimes considered a philosophical perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology. It has a long history in several social research disciplines including psychology, sociology and social work. Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others.

11. Key Features of Positivist and Phenomenological Paradigms Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Lowe 1994 pp. 27

12. Positivist paradigm Phenomenological paradigm Basic beliefs: The world is external and objective Observer is independent Science is value-free The world is socially constructed and subjective Observer is part of what observed Science is driven by human interests Researcher should: focus on facts look for causality and fundamental laws reduce phenomena to simplest events formulate hypotheses and then test them focus on meanings try to understand what is happening look at the totality of each situation develop ideas through induction form data Preferred methods include: operationalising concepts so that they can be measured taking large samples using multiple methods to establish different views of phenomena small samples investigated in depth or over time

13. Positivist viewpoint Phenomenological viewpoint Validity Does an instrument measure what it is supposed to measure? Has the researcher gained full access to the knowledge and meanings of informants? Reliability Will the measure yield the same results on different occasions (assuming no real change in what is to be measured)? Will similar observations be made by different researchers on different occasions? Generalisability What is the probability that patterns observed in a sample will also be present in the wider population from which the sample is drawn? How likely is it that ideas and theories generated in one setting will also apply in other settings? Considerations for successful research

14. Deductive vs Inductive reasoning

15. Circular model of research process • Inductive: begin at A (observation/description), proceed to B (analysis), arrive at C (explanation) • Deductive: begin at C (hypothesis), proceed to A (gathering data to test hyp), proceed to B to test hyp against data A: observation/ description B: Analysis C: Explanation/ Hypotheses/ Theory

16. How to determine your own research philosophy • Consider your own research background/experience • Consider your topic (theoretical basis, research subjects, desired knowledge etc) • Read widely on research philosophy – there are many often contrasting and contradictory views • Many more specific views egrelativism, subjectivism, hermeneutics, deconstructivism, constructivism, feminism etc. • Engage in philosophical debate with peers, supervisors, yourself • Show this in your thesis, building a case for your own philosophical stance • Let this then lead your methodology

17. Conclusions • There is no right or wrong research philosophy, but a well argued case for the one you prefer showing understanding of alternatives • Your research philosophy will guide your methodology and your overall approach to your PhD • It’s hard but vital! An understanding of alternative philosophies will make you a much better researcher.

18. Further reading • Many books and articles on this • Look for ones in your area of research as well as general social science/business research • Use seminal texts as well as up to date books/articles –the debate continues. • Look at the approaches of other researchers in your field of study

19. Review exercises • Read the short article ‘Toward a research philosophy’ and critique the author’s approach to research methodology • You are interested in examining management stress in particular kinds of organisations. You want to find out as much as you can about how it manifests itself in particular workplaces. In pairs debate whether this should be approached from a positivist or post-positivist/phenomenological perspective (one to play role of positivist other critical realist or phenomenologist) • Repeat the above for your own PhD topics. • Read ‘All research is interpretive’ and consider the implications of this philosophical view (homework).