Advanced Syntax

1. Lecture 8: Adverbial positions Advanced Syntax

2. ‘Adverbial’ is the cover term for everything which modifies some part of the clause (VP, IP or CP) • It does not name a syntactic category, but a function • ‘Adverb’ is a syntactic category which often has the function of an adverbial • Phrases of different categories can be adverbials • AP: he was [almost certainly] mad • PP: he pressed the button [just in time] • NP: I paid the bill [the day after] • CP: I would be famous [if I could sing] Adverbials

3. Modifiers are adjuncts An adjunct has the same mother as sister So, they are recursive Generally, adjuncts can come either side of what they are adjoined to Adjunction is possible to any level of projection Adjunction: a reminder

4. Adverbials have a range of possible positions • He may have been being robbed possibly • However, there is variation between different adverbials The distribution of adverbials

5. Adverbials of different categories have different distributions • APs have the widest distribution and can appear • Sentence initially certainly he left • Sentence medially he certainly left • Sentence finally he left certainly Distribution by category

6. PPs, DPs and clauses only appear initially and finally • In the morning he left he left in the morning • that night he left he left that night • Because he could, he left he left because he could • They appear sentence medially only with special intonation • He, in the morning, left • He, last night, left • He, because he could, left • In this case, they seem to have the status of an ‘after thought’: an epenthetic comment Distribution by category

7. AP adverbials also have different distributions depending on how they are used • He unexpectedly quickly fled the room • He fled the room quickly unexpectedly • * he quickly unexpectedly fled the room • * he fled the room unexpectedly quickly • Adverbs like ‘quickly’ have to be closer to the verb than adverbs like ‘unexpectedly’ • We call the first VP adverbs and the others sentential adverbs Distribution by function

8. Some adverbs with specific meanings have limited distributions • Negatives only appear medially • (*never) he (never) spoke to me (*never) • Negative polarity adverbs have to appear to the left of a negative • * he ever spoke • He didn’t ever speak no one ever spoke • He didn’t speak ever no one spoke ever • * ever, he didn’t speak * ever no one spoke Distribution by function

9. Modify the manner in which an event happens • He suddenly arrived • He carefully picked up the stack of plates • Contrast the following: • He obviously has no money (sentence modification) • It is obvious that he has no money • He dressed very obviously (VP modification) • He was dressed in an obvious way VP adverbials: meaning

10. Modify the place in which an event happens • They met in the park VP adverbials: Meaning

11. VP adverbials adjoin to VP • So we can have more than one: • They met [secretly] [in the park] • In any order: • They met [in the park] [secretly] VP adverbials: Syntax

12. Sentential adverbials are adjoined higher than the VP • So VP adverbials are closer to the verb than sentential adverbials: • He clearly hastily left his apartment • * he hastily clearly left his apartment • The wrong order involves crossing branches VP Adverbials: Syntax

13. The same is true for the final positions VP Adverbials: Syntax

14. Support for this analysis • He may hastily leave the office • * he hastily may leave the office VP adverbials: Syntax

15. But: • He hastily left the office • The verb is assumed to be in the I position • So the adverbial cannot be adjoined to VP VP adverbials: Syntax

16. The verb is not in I • This means that the inflection must move to the verb • But downward movements are impossible elsewhere Solutions

17. The verb is in I and the adverbial is not adjoined to VP • So why can’t it be in this position when an auxiliary is in I? Solutions

18. The VP adverb clearly prefers a post-inflection position: • You should quietly leave the room • * you quietly should leave the room • But with special emphasis on the Inflection, it is sometimes not so bad to have the adverb in front of it • They have carefully read the contract • ? They carefully HAVE read the contract VP adverbs and the verb

19. Adverbs do not like being after the verb, though they can appear after the whole VP: • * he read carefully the contract • He read the contract carefully • This is a little like the negation: • The negative particle cannot be in front of I • * He not will leave • Nor after the verb • * He will leave not VP adverbs and the verb

20. The difference between VP adverbs and the negative is that the conditions on the adverb are less strong: • The adverb doesn’t like being in front of I, but it can be • Thus, when the main verb is in I, while the negative CANNOT precede or follow it, the adverb CAN precede it VP adverbs and the verb

21. The inflection needs supporting • * he –ed leave • The verb should move to support it • * he do-ed (did) leave • Negation cannot be in front of I • * He not will leave • VP adverbs cannot be in front of I • * it suddenly could collapse • Negation cannot be behind the verb • * he will leave not • VP adverbs cannot be behind the verb • * he left suddenly the cinema Conflicting grammatical principles • What we have here is a set of grammatical requirements that conflict with each other: • With negation: • 1, 2, 3 and 5 are relevant • 1 and 2 require the verb and the inflection to be together • 3 and 5 require them to be separate • The solution is to violate 2 and insert do • With adverbs: • 1, 2, 4, and 6 are relevant • 1 and 2 require the verb and inflection to be together • 4 and 6 require them to be separate • The solution is to violate 5 and put the adverb first

22. These conditions are ordered in terms of importance: • Neg precedes I > verb supports I > Adv precedes I • When conflicts arise, where not all conditions can be satisfied, we violate the least important one Explaining the order

23. PP modifiers always follow the VP Therefore their positioning is relatively straightforward Other positions for VP adverbials

24. PP adverbials which modify the VP can follow sentential adverbials • He opened the box yesterday with care • As we know, PPs can undergo extraposition and so can move to the end of the clause Other positions for VP adverbials

25. * he opened the box t1 yesterday carefully1 APs cannot undergo Extraposition

26. VP adverbials can also go before the whole clause • Gently, he took the fuse from the bomb • In anger, he responded to the letter • This is a position that things other than adverbials can go in: • That idea, we all agreed was bad • His attitude, I couldn’t tolerate • We will deal with this in a future lecture Other positions for VP adverbials

27. Semantics • Far more varied than VP adverbials Sentential Adverbials • Subject oriented adverbials • He foolishly forgot to pay • Speaker oriented adverbials • Honestly, he’s an idiot • Temporal modifiers • I met him last week • Modal Adverbials • He probably forgot to pay • Negative adverbials • He never remembers my birthday • Purpose modifiers • to avoid arrest, he paid the bill • Reason modifiers • Because he is fast, he won • Conditionals • You can leave, if you must

28. The distribution of sentential adverbials is dependent on the type involved • Subject oriented adverbials have to precede the VP • Foolishly, he read the paper subject oriented • He foolishly read the paper subject oriented • He read the paper foolishly manner • Speaker oriented adverbials can go in all positions, but can only be final with special intonation: • Hopefully, he will succeed • He will hopefully succeed • He will succeed, hopefully (epenthetic?) The syntax of sentential Adverbials

29. Negative adverbs always have a medial position • * never, he will surrender • He will never surrender • * he will surrender never • However, they can undergo ‘negative fronting’, which is accompanied by inversion • Never will he surrender • We will look at this structure in a future lecture The syntax of sentential Adverbials

30. Clausal adverbials, like PPs, prefer a peripheral position: • If we had any eggs, we could have eggs and bacon if we had any bacon • They can be medial, as epenthesis: • We could, if we had the inclination, have a party The syntax of sentential Adverbials

31. Sentence medial position is preferably following the inflection: • They will certainly hire a lawyer • Though a pre-inflection position is possible with special emphasis – better than VP adverbs in this position • They certainly will hire a lawyer The adjunction site of the sentential adverbial

32. The pre-inflection position must be adjoined to the I’ • it is between the subject (specifier of IP) and the inflection The adjunction site of the sentential adverbial

33. The post inflection adverb cannot be adjoined to the VP • Sentential adverbs precede VP adverbs, which are adjoined to VP • So they must be adjoined to something between the inflection and the VP • We have seen that tense heads a vP which sits in the relevant position The adjunction site of the sentential adverbial

34. Evidence in favour of this: • He will obviously have been being followed • He will have obviously been being followed • He will have been obviously being followed • When it sits after the last one, its interpretation is that of a manner adverb (adjoined to VP) • He will have been being obviously followed The adjunction site of the sentential adverbial

35. Last week we concluded that the negative particle is best analysed as an adverbial • We can be more precise now • It is a sentential adverbial • Because it has a medial position, it is probably best analysed as an AP • Though it doesn’t have many other AP properties • * very not • Therefore, it adjoins to vP • He will (not) be (not) being (not) followed The negative particle

36. Some temporal adverbials have a more restricted medial position than others: • He is often busy • He may often be busy • ? He may be often being nosey • This may be because such adverbs prefer to be adjoined to the tense vP rather than any other Temporal adverbials

37. Adverbials are adjuncts • VP adverbials (mainly) adjoin to the VP • Sentential adverbials (mainly) adjoin to vP • There are some linear restrictions on them • APs can come either side of what they are adjoined to, but other adverbials follow • Adverbials can only follow the VP, not the verb • Adverbials prefer a post inflection position • All adverbials can appear in front of the clause (except negatives) – this is a movement process which is not restricted to adverbials Conclusion