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Advanced Syntax

Lecture 9: The Gerund. Advanced Syntax. The English gerund is an intriguing structure which causes a particular problem for X-bar theory [His constantly complaining about the food] upset the waiter The problem is that:

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Advanced Syntax

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  1. Lecture 9: The Gerund Advanced Syntax

  2. The English gerund is an intriguing structure which causes a particular problem for X-bar theory • [His constantly complaining about the food] upset the waiter • The problem is that: • from one perspective, the gerund looks like a clause and contains the kind of verbal things that clauses have • from another perspective, the gerund looks like a DP and contains the kind of nominal things that DPs have A problematic structure

  3. But • clauses are headed by inflections and have VP complements (headed by verbs) and • DPs are headed by determiners and have NP complements (headed by nouns) • So: is the gerund an IP or a DP? A problematic structure

  4. The main thematic word in the gerund has an ‘-ing’ form: • [his washing the car every day] was predictable • [their finding the treasure] was unexpected • The fact that the –ing form is a verbal form supports the idea that the gerund is a clause: • Clauses contain VPs Clausal aspects of gerunds

  5. The –ing word can take a ‘bare’ DP complement • John’s hunting [DP tigers] was frowned upon • Only verbs and prepositions can do this • eat [DP an apple] • on [DP the table] • * observation [DP the results] • * fond [DP chocolate] Clausal aspects of gerunds

  6. Nouns and adjectives must have an inserted of with their nominal complements • Observation of [the results] • Fond of [chocolate] • This suggests that the –ing word is a verb and hence that the gerund construction is a clause Clausal aspects of gerunds

  7. Gerunds are modified by adverbs • His quickly adding the numbers • Adverbs modify verbs, not nouns • to quickly run • * a quickly runner • This supports analysing the –ing word as a verb and hence gerund constructions as clauses Clausal aspects of gerunds

  8. The gerund construction can contain auxiliary verbs: • His having left • His being killed • His having been killed • DPs never contain auxiliaries • a walk • * a is walking • * a have walked • This suggests that gerund constructions are clauses rather than DPs Clausal aspects of gerunds

  9. However, gerund constructions cannot contain inflections • * his maying leave • * his toing have left • This might be taken to indicate that –ing is an inflection • It is in complementary distribution with inflections • Hence the gerund construction is an IP Clausal aspects of gerunds

  10. Clausal aspects of gerunds

  11. But ... • The subject of the gerund is a possessor • Only DPs have possessors • His dog • * his was thinking • * his may leave • With non-pronoun possessors, the possession is marked by ‘’s’ • John’s having gone • This element is a determiner, which heads a DP DP aspects of the Gerund

  12. The distribution of a gerund is not like an IP • There are some positions which DPs can go, but not IPs DP aspects of the Gerund

  13. Complement of a preposition • he thought about [the problem] • * he though about [that this was a problem] • Subject of a clause with inversion • will [this problem] stop him • * will [that this is a problem] stop him • Cleft position • It was [this problem] that I considered • * it was [that this is a problem] that I considered • Topic position • [this problem], we don’t need to consider • * [that this is a problem], we don’t need to consider DP aspects of the Gerund

  14. The gerund can go in all these positions • I worry about [his being dishonest] • Does [his being dishonest] bother you • It is [his being dishonest] that hurts • [his being dishonest], I detest • This argues that the gerund is a DP, not an IP DP aspects of the Gerund

  15. DP aspects of the Gerund

  16. But, this analysis contradicts all the evidence that the ‘-ing’ word is a verb • It can take a DP complement • It is modified by adverbs • It can be accompanied by auxiliaries • So the analysis seems to be: The Problem

  17. The problem

  18. This cannot be right because determiners cannot take VP complements • * the [read the book] • * a [have left] • * every [have been leaving] • So we are left without a consistent analysis of the gerund construction The problem

  19. There is another kind of gerund which has different properties to the one we have been looking at: • his signing of the contract • These do not have to have possessors • The signing of the contract • In this case, they can appear with other determiners • A building of a bridge Another gerund

  20. In this gerund, the –ing word behaves like a noun • It cannot take a bare DP complement • * the signing the contract • It is modified by an adjective • His reluctant (*reluctantly) signing of the contract • It cannot take auxiliary verbs • * the having signed of the contract • * the being signed Another gerund

  21. This gerund, like the other, distributes like a DP • We were arguing about [John’s taking of photos] • Will [his taking of photos] disturb you • It is [the taking of photos] which is banned • The taking of photos, I can’t agree with • All in all, this looks to be a simple DP Another gerund

  22. Another gerund

  23. A comparison • The poss-ing gerund • John’s eagerly drinking the wine • X-ing = verb • * his eagerly drinking of the wine • * his eager drinking the wine • His having drunk the wine • Subject is obligatory • * the drinking the wine • Only possessive determiner possible • * a drinking the wine • Distributes like DP • The –ing of gerund • John’s eager drinking of the wine • X-ing = noun • * his eager drinking the wine • * his eagerly drinking of the wine • * his having drunk of the wine • Subject is optional • The drinking of the wine • Other determiners are possible • This drinking of the wine • Distributes like DP

  24. There is a standard distinction made between derivational morphology and inflectional morphology A short diversion: Morphology

  25. Derivational morphology • Forms new words from others • Govern  government • Black  blacken • Run  runner A short diversion: Morphology

  26. Derivational morphology • The derived words have different properties to the one they are derived from A short diversion: Morphology • Govern • Verb • A political process • Government • Noun • The body that carries out the political process

  27. Inflectional Morphology • Forms a new version of the same word • live, lived, living • The derived words differ only from the original in terms of what the inflection adds A short diversion: Morphology • Live • Verb • Process of being alive • Present tense • Lived • Verb • Process of being alive • Past tense

  28. This distinction has been captured under the assumptions that • Derivational morphology takes place in the lexicon (before syntax) • Inflectional morphology takes place in the syntax (by head movement) A short diversion: Morphology

  29. This is supported by the observations that: • Derivational morphology is (usually) irregular • government; denial; retraction; walk • Which morpheme is used depends on the lexical item it is attached to A short diversion: Morphology

  30. Inflectional morphology is (usually) regular • governs; denies; retracts; walks • The morphemes are lexically given and put together by a syntactic process • There may be post-syntactic phonological processes to account for irregular inflections • make+ed = made; put+ed = put • But typically there IS a regular form (unlike with derivation) A short diversion: Morphology

  31. Derivational Morphology is (typically) non-productive: • Blacken, widen, thicken, shorten • * bluen, narrowen, thinnen, longen • Inflectional Morphology is (typically) very productive • Hates, runs, hits, yawns, gives, arrives, says, makes, knows, writes, becomes, lives, puts, pays, takes, derives, evaporates, Xeroxes, congeals, ... A short diversion: Morphology

  32. The gerund ‘-ing’: • sometimes changes verbs into nouns • They played football • The playing of football • These suggest that it is a derivational morpheme The status of the gerund ‘-ing’

  33. But the gerund ‘-ing’: • is very regular • is very productive • These suggest that it is an inflection The status of the gerund ‘-ing’

  34. Let us suppose that –ing is an inflectional morpheme Like Inflection, it takes VP and vP complements Unlike Inflection, it is not of the category I Its category is N So it projects an NP The only thing that it adds to the verb which attaches to it, is its category Analysis

  35. We start with a verb Analysis – ing of

  36. Which projects a VP The VP can contain a theme Analysis – ing of

  37. Here we add the –ing Which projects an NP There is nothing to assign Case to the theme Analysis – ing of

  38. But with nouns, we can insert an of Analysis – ing of

  39. The verb moves to support the bound morpheme Analysis – ing of

  40. This NP is the complement of a determiner There doesn’t have to be a possessor Analysis – ing of

  41. But there can be one If we have the possessive determiner There is no room for an auxiliary Analysis – ing of

  42. We start with the verb Analysis of Poss-ing

  43. Which projects a VP with its theme Analysis of Poss-ing

  44. We complete the VP with an agentive verb and agent The agentive verb Case marks the theme So, no of insertion is needed Analysis of Poss-ing

  45. The verb moves to support the abstract verb Analysis of Poss-ing

  46. At this point we add the –ing Which projects an NP The agent cannot get Case Analysis of Poss-ing

  47. The verb moves to support the bound morpheme Analysis of Poss-ing

  48. The NP is the complement of a determiner Which projects a DP Analysis of Poss-ing

  49. The agent still needs Case Only the possessive determiner can assign Case So no other determiner is possible Analysis of Poss-ing

  50. The agent moves to get genitive Case Analysis of Poss-ing

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