Dynamical and physical properties of extrasolar planets

1. Dynamical and physical properties of extrasolar planets presented as part of the lecture „Origin of Solar Systems“ Ronny Lutz and Anne Angsmann July 2, 2009

2. Outline • Introduction, detection methods (Anne) • Physical properties, statistics (Ronny) • Dynamical properties, atmospheres (Anne) • Habitability of exoplanets (Ronny)

3. Introduction • Extrasolar planets (exoplanets) are defined as objects orbiting a star which have masses below 13.6 MJupiter • more precise definitions (until now only applicable in our solar system): spherical shape and ability to clear its neighbourhood • large ranges of possible properties - mass (factor 5800 in our solar system), distance from host star, temperature, eccentricity, composition,... • interesting aspects, e.g. time-dependent heating for strongly eccentric orbits

4. Detection methods for exoplanets • Astrometry: changes in proper motion of host star due to the planet‘s gravitational pull • Radial velocity (Doppler effect): • magnitude of observed effects depends on inclination of planet‘s orbital plane to our point of view (best case: edge-on) → only minimum mass of planet can be determined (M sin i) • in combination with astrometry, the planet‘s absolute mass can be derived • Gravitational microlensing: planet causes distortions in lensed image when passing in front of background star • advantage: might allow detections of rather small planets • disadvantage: no repetition of lensing event; large distance of discovered planet might prevent from confirming discovery using other methods (Wikipedia) (Wikipedia) (Wikipedia)

5. Detection methods for exoplanets • Transit: planet passes in front of host star and causes decrease in brightness • Photometric measurements indicate size and orbital period of planet (and possibly even atmospheric elements) • duration of transit yields orbital inclination→ in combination with Doppler method, total mass of planet can be determined • mean density from M and R • Direct observation Fomalhaut b, the first exoplanet to be imaged directly in visible light (2008)

6. a=115 AU, R ~ RJup, M ~ 0.05 - 3 MJup young system (~ 100 - 300 million years) A

7. HR 8799, a system with three planets, discovered in 2007 in infrared light with the Keck and Gemini telescopes (Marois et al, 2008) • young star (~ 60 million years), planets recently formed: detected IR radiation from planets is internal heat • orbital motion of planets (anticlockwise) confirmed in re-analyzed multiple observations back to 2004 10 ± 3 MJup 38 AU b c 7+-42 MJup 68 AU 10 ± 3 MJup 24 AU d

9. Atmospheres of exoplanets • Theoretical models • Hot Jupiters • theoretical spectra • Observations • methods of investigating atmospheric properties of exoplanets • the Earth‘s spectrum seen from space • the spectrum of HD 209458 b • day-night brightness differences at HD 189733 b • the spectrum of HD 189733 b

10. Theoretical models • atmospheric composition depends on initial species, reactions and various other processes, and temperature • scale height of atmosphere related to mass and radius of planet: • (kB: Boltzmann constant, NA: Avogadro number, µ: mean molar mass of atmospheric gas (Ehrenreich et al. 2005)) • the atmospheres of less dense planets extend further outwards → easier detection • atmospheric escape: complex process, depending on balance between heating by UV radiation from host star and infrared cooling by certain molecules, e.g. H3+ (Koskinen et al., 2008) • hydrodynamically escaping atmosphere brings heavier elements to the hot upper layers; easier to detect than stable atmosphere

11. Theoretical models • Hot Jupiters: • presumably tidally locked to their host star, thus heat transport towards the dark side should be investigated • observations are mixed: some planets exhibit large day-night contrasts, others don‘t - more data needed • outer radiative zones expected due to strong external heating by stars; inhibition of convection • stable atmospheres possible, depending on mass of planet, stellar irradiation and atmospheric composition • prediction of water by models (Grillmair et al., 2008) • planet-spanning dynamical weather structures predicted

12. Theoretical spectra • theoretical spectra for transmission (transit) and emission/reflection have been developed • emission and reflection spectra: later • transmission spectra (Ehrenreich et al., 2005): • Earth-sized terrestrial planets • challenging as the expected drop in intensity is only 10-7 - 10-6 • models include only water vapour, CO2, ozone, O2 and N2, regarding the wavelength range 0.2 - 2 µm • separate into three types: • N2/O2-rich (Earth-like) • CO2-rich (Venus-like) • N2/H2O-rich („ocean planet“) • calculate absorption, Rayleigh scattering etc.

13. Theoretical spectra Earth-like planet: N2, O2 H2O H2O H2O O2 CO2 O3 CO2 Water only detectable when present in substantial amount above the clouds

14. Theoretical spectra Venus-like planet: CO2

15. Theoretical spectra Ocean planet: N2, H2O

16. Theoretical spectra • vegetation: „red edge“ • rapid increase in reflectance of chlorophyll at λ≥ 700 nm Seager et al., 2005 reflected light which makes plants appear green

17. Investigating atmospheric properties • transit: determination of atmospheric chemical composition (absorption features, transit radii at different wavelengths) • secondary eclipse: • infrared emission from planetary atmosphere • deduction of effective temperature of planet • observations are easiest in infrared light because of better ratio between emission of planet and star • but: combining measurements in different wavelengths yields more information → atmospheric effects! • between transits: • analysis of atmospheric chemical composition in planet‘s reflection spectrum / scattered light by substracting secondary eclipse brightness • differences between dayside and nightside

18. Investigating atmospheric properties • atmospheric structure and dynamics: start by looking at the basic properties of planets in our solar system stratosphere: rising temperature because of UV light absorption by ozone/hydrocarbon products Marley et al., 2008 troposphere: linear increase in temperature with depth caused by convection of heat from the surface/deep interior

19. Reflection spectrum of the Earth‘s atmosphere (Turnbull et al., 2006)

20. Reflection spectrum of the Earth‘s atmosphere (Turnbull et al., ApJ, 2006) cumulus water cloud at 4 km cirrus ice particles at 10 km altitude

21. Reflection spectrum of the Earth‘s atmosphere (Turnbull et al., 2006) • Comparison with models leads to the following conclusions: • the Earth‘s spectrum clearly differs from those of Mars, Venus, the gas giants and their satellites: • strong water bands → habitable planet • methane and large amounts of oxygen → either biological activity or very unusual atmospheric and geological processes • clear-air and cloud fractions required in models → dynamic atmosphere; changes in albedo • periodic changes due to rotation: maps of surface (land/ocean) • but: washing out of surface signals by clouds • visibility of seasonal changes?

22. Reflection spectrum of the Earth‘s atmosphere Red edge much harder to detect in reality Seager et al., 2005

23. The spectrum of HD 209458 b • Properties: M=0.685 MJup, R=1.32 RJup, semimajor axis: 0.047 AU, orbital period: 3.5 days • first exoplanet detected in transit (2000) Perryman et al., 2000

24. The spectrum of HD 209458 b • Charbonneau et al. (2002) reported on the detection of sodium lines during transit of HD 209458 b • less sodium than expected (absorption features should be three times stronger); discussion of depletion, clouds etc. • detection of HI (Lyα), OI and CII in 2004 (Vidal-Madjar et al.) • large amounts of these species are too far outside to be gravitationally bound to the planet (models) → hydrodynamic escape; escape rate ≥ 1010 g/s • temperature inversion leads to water emission lines (Knutson et al., 2007) • H2 Rayleigh scattering (Lecavelier des Etangs et al., 2008) • absorption by TiO (titanium oxide) and VO (vanadium oxide) as possible cause for temperature inversion (Désert et al., 2008); absorption lines not clearly identified yet

25. The spectrum of HD 209458 b three models with stratosphere (absorber in upper atmosphere) and slightly different redistribution parameters Pn Burrows et al., 2007 model without extra absorber in upper atmosphere

26. Day-night contrast at HD 189733b (Knutson et al., 2007) • Properties: M=1.14 MJup, R=1.138 RJup, semimajor axis: 0.03 AU, orbital period: 2.2 days

27. Day-night contrast at HD 189733b (8 µm) (Knutson et al., 2007) • distinct rise in flux from transit to secondary eclipse • increment of (0.12 ± 0.02)% in total amplitude • comparison with secondary eclipse depth → variation in hemisphere-integrated planetary flux: Fmin=(0.64 ± 0.07) Fmax • flux peak at 16 ± 6 degrees before opposition • secondary eclipse yields brightness temperature Teff=(1205.1 ± 9.3) K • additional variations imply the hemisphere-averaged temperatures Tmax=(1212 ± 11) K and Tmin=(973 ± 33) K • creation of a basic map of brightness distribution by using a simple model comprised of twelve slices of constant brightness

28. Day-night contrast at HD 189733b (Knutson et al., 2007) no extreme day-night difference: redistribution by atmosphere offset of brightest spot from substellar point indicates presence of atmospheric winds

29. Day-night contrast at HD 189733b (24 µm) (Knutson et al., 2009) • very similar findings at 24 µm (wavelength corresponding to atmospheric region with different pressure) • circulation must be very similar in both regions • only small differences in temperature between layers probed by 8 µm and 24 µm → no convection at these altitudes • efficient transport of heat from day- to nightside by atmospheric winds at both probed altitudes • the atmosphere of HD 189733b can be described accurately with models with no temperature inversion and water absorption bands, as opposed to HD 209458b

30. The dayside emission spectrum of HD 189733b (Grillmair et al., 2008) „water bump“: signature of vibrational states of water vapour

31. The dayside emission spectrum of HD 189733b (Grillmair et al., 2008) • water bump, flux ratio at 3.6 and 4.5 µm and decrease of planet/star flux ratio below 10 µm indicate presence of water vapour (water also found in transmission) • significant differences to previous observations → dynamical weather structures in the upper atmosphere which change the spectrum? • comparison with models indicates weak heat redistribution to nightside • but: nightside temperature is high, maybe internal energy source • heat redistribution might depend on atmospheric depth; three-dimensional models necessary • strong indications for H2O, CO2 and CO in transmission spectrum (Swain et al., 2009)

32. The dayside emission spectrum of HD 189733b (Swain et al., 2009)

33. Summary (Part 3) • atmospheres of exoplanets are expected to display a large range of possible properties • investigation of atmospheres in transit/secondary eclipse • theoretical spectra resulting from models reproduce the Earth‘s atmospheric spectrum quite well • various elements have been detected in atmospheres of exoplanets, in transmission as well as in reflection • day-night contrasts can be measured • comparison with models is very helpful in the investigation of atmospheres

35. Theoretical modelsFormation of atmospheres • atmospheric composition and evolution: formation of atmospheres in three possible ways (Elkins-Tanton et al., 2008): • capture of nebular gases • degassing during accretion • degassing from tectonic activity • low-mass terrestrial planets do not have sufficient gravity to capture nebular gases • in the inner solar system, nebular gases may have dissipated already when final planetary accretion takes place • hints for composition of planetesimals come from meteorites: chondrites (water contained as OH) and achondrites (very low water content)

36. Theoretical modelsFormation of atmospheres - chondritic material • Chondritic material alone: • water and iron react until the water reservoir is exhausted • release (outgassing) of hydrogen to the atmosphere • some non-oxidized iron remains in the surface • very rare cases: all iron oxidized before water content depleted; then also release of water to the atmosphere • Chondritic material with added water: • assumption of an amount of water exactly sufficient to oxidize all the iron • same implications for the atmospheric composition as in first model (only hydrogen degassed) • no metallic iron remaining

37. Theoretical modelsFormation of atmospheres - achondritic material • Achondritic material alone: • accretion of a protoplanet with mantle and core; silicate mantle fully melted (magma ocean) • when cooling down, part of the water is trapped inside the solidifying mantle minerals • Achondritic material with added water: • similar to preceding case, but with additional volatiles available in the magma ocean phase