Kingdoms, Classification, and Plants

1. Kingdoms, Classification, and Plants Unit 8

2. Taxonomy • There are estimated to be 10-30 million organisms on Earth. • Can you remember this many names? • Taxonomy: the science of naming and classifying organisms • Over 2,000 years ago, Greek philosophers grouped plants and animals into units of classification called a genus (plural: genera). • This could get confusing if people didn’t agree on names! Carl Linneaus: created a system for naming organisms. • Binomial nomenclature: Linneaus’ two-word system for naming organisms • Binomial nomenclature uses two Latin words to name each organisms. The first word is the genus, the second is the species name. • Example: Apismellifera or the European Honeybee • Apis=genus name • Mellifera=species name Benagh

3. Scientific Names • These two part names are now called “scientific names.” • Genus: a taxonomic category containing similar species. Organisms in a genus share important characteristics. • Species: the basic biological unit in the Linnaean system of classification. • Scientific names are important because this common language for biologists prevents confusion if organisms have different “common” names in different places. A “Robin” is a different bird here than in England, so we need scientific names to keep everything straight! • Rules: • The first letter of the genus is capitalized. • The first letter of the species is lowercase. • Italicized or underlined. • Once you use the full name, you can abbreviate it like this: • Genus species  G. species Benagh Buck Salina 2013

4. Scientific Name Practice! • Write the following names in the proper format, then write the abbreviation. • Red Oak: quercusrubra • Quercusrubra Q. rubra • Human: homo sapiens • Homo sapiens H. sapiens • Chimpanzee: pan paniscus • Pan paniscus P. paniscus • Honeybee: apismellifera • Apismellifera A. mellifera Benagh

5. Classifying Organisms • There are eight levels of classification; each level is more inclusive than the previous. • Similar genera are grouped into a family. • Similar families are grouped into an order. • Similar orders are grouped into a class. • Similar classes are grouped into a phylum. • Similar phyla are grouped into a kingdom. • Similar kingdom are grouped into domains. • Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species • Do Kindly Pay Cash Or Furnish Good Security • Daring Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk Benagh Benagh

6. Levels of Classification Domain • Each level is more inclusive than the previous. Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

7. Domains • Domain: the most inclusive unit of taxonomic classification. • All living organisms are grouped into one of three domains! • Archaea: a single kingdom of prokaryotes (archaebacteria). • Bacteria: a single kingdom of prokaryotes (eubacteria). • Eukarya: four kingdoms of eukaryotes. • Protista • Fungi • Plantae • Animalia Benagh

8. Kingdoms Benagh

9. Kingdoms • There are 6 Kingdoms, in 3 different Domains: • Domain Archaea: • Kingdom Archaebacteria: prokaryotes that seem to have diverged very early from bacteria. More closely related to Eukaryotes than bacteria. • Domain Bacteria: • Kingdom Eubacteria: prokaryotes that have the same kind of lipid in their cell membranes as do eukaryotes. • Domain Eukarya: • Kingdoms: • Protista: Eukaryotes that are not fungi, plants, or animals. Unicellular or multi-cellular. • Fungi: mostly multi-cellular eukaryotes with chitin in their cell walls. • Plantae: complex multi-cellular organisms that produce their own food. • Animalia: complex multi-cellular organisms that eat other organisms for food. • Vertebrates: an animal with a backbone • Invertebrates: an animal with no backbone Benagh

10. Domains and Kingdoms Benagh

11. Nutrition in Kingdoms • Autotrophic: an organism that produces its own nutrients from inorganic substances or from the environment instead of consuming other organisms. • Makes its own food! • Heterotrophic: an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by products and that cannot synthesize organic compounds from inorganic materials. • Eats food! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotroph http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/current/ED101fa10/ccburke/Organisms.html Benagh

12. What is a Species? • Biological Species Concept: a species is a group of natural populations that are interbreeding or that could interbreed, and that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. • Species are reproductively isolated from others though reproductive barriers. • However, these reproductive barriers may not always be complete. • Example: Wolves and dogs can interbreed but are in different species. Benagh

13. Evolutionary History • Darwin said that organisms that are more similar to one another have descended from a recent common ancestor. • Classification should reflect an organism’s phylogeny. • Phylogeny: evolutionary history • Not all features come from common ancestors! • Through convergent evolution, similarities called analogous structures evolve. Such structures do not come from common ancestors. Benagh

14. Cladistics • Most biologists today analyze evolutionary relationships using cladistics. • Cladistics: a method of analysis that reconstructs phylogeny (evolutionary relationships) by inferring relationships based on shared characters. • This is done using: • Ancestral Characters: traits that evolved in a common ancestor of both groups. • Backbones in birds and mammals are an ancestral character because the backbone was present in a common ancestor. • Derived Characters: traits that evolved in an ancestor in one group but not in an ancestor of another. • Feathers evolved in an ancestor of birds. This ancestor was NOT an ancestor to mammals. Benagh

15. Cladistics • Cladogram: a branching diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms. Example: Benagh • Cladogram Phylogenetic Tree

16. Clades and Evolution • Organisms are assigned to different taxonomic categories based on their shared derived characteristics. • Cladograms show how closely two or more groups are related based on these important characteristics. • Organisms that are grouped more closely share a more recent common ancestor than those far apart. • A clade demonstrates the evolutionary ancestor and all its descendents based on shared derived characters. Benagh

17. Phylogenetic Tree • Phylogenetic Tree: A branching diagram that displays evolutionary relationships based on a subjective analysis of various characters. • Cladogram Phylogenetic Tree Benagh

18. Dichotomous Keys • A dichotomous key is a written device used to allow a scientist or individual to determine the species of an organism or identify an object. • Dichotomous keys help individuals apply the classification system and identify the groups to which an organism belongs. • Dichotomous keys are based on an idea: an organism either has or does not have a particular trait.

19. Complex Multi-cellularity • Some organisms, such as plants and animals demonstrate complex multicellularity and are organized into: • Tissue: distinct group of cells with a similar structure and function • Organs: tissues organized into a specialized structure • Organ Systems: organs organized into a system that carries out a major function. • SO: organ systems are made of organs which are made of tissues which are made of cells! Benagh

20. Adaptations of Plants Benagh • The first plants lived near water, where drying out was not a problem. • Eventually, plants developed traits to allow them to live in drier habitats. • Cuticle: a waxy, watertight covering that reduces water loss • Covers the non-woody aboveground plant parts • Stomata (singular: stomata): pores that permit plants to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. • Guard Cells: Specialized cells that border stoma • Stomata open and close as the guard cells change shape

21. Plant Tissue Types • Dermal Tissue: the protective outer layer of a plant. • Ground Tissue: makes up much of the inside of the non-woody parts of a plant, including roots, stems, and leaves. • Vascular Tissue: tissues that distribute materials efficiently through the plant • Xylem • Phloem Benagh

22. Conducting Tissue (Vascular Tissue) • Vascular Plant: a plant with a vascular system • Vascular system: a system of well-developed vascular tissues that distribute materials efficiently through the plant in larger, complex plants. • Non-vascular Plant: a plant with no vascular system. • Types of Vascular Tissue: • Phloem: soft-welled cells that transport organic nutrients • Xylem: hard-walled cells, transport water and mineral nutrients • The Xylem and the phloem are contained in a strand of conducting tissue called the Vascular Bundle. Benagh

23. Root Conducting Tissue • Plants developed roots to absorb nutrients • Roots are made of 3 types of tissue: • Epidermis: the outside layer • Vascular tissue: the conducting tissue, contains the xylem and phloem • Cortex tissue: stores sugar and starch • All roots have a protective covering at the end of the root called a root cap, And tiny root hairs along the side of the root that increase absorption of nutrients by increasing surface area. • Roots are divided into 2 categories based upon shape. • Tap roots: large central roots from which many smaller roots branch • Fibrous root: highly branched root system • Additionally, some plants also have roots that grow from aboveground stems or leaves, which are called adventitiousroots. Benagh

24. Kinds of Plants Nonvascular Plants: plants with no vascular tissue Seedless Vascular Plants: vascular plants that do not produce seeds Gymnosperms: seed plants who seeds do not develop within a sealed container (fruit) Angiosperms: flowering seed plants that produce seeds enclosed a specialized structure called a fruit Benagh

25. Nonvascular Plants • Nonvascular Plants: plants with no vascular tissue • Lack true roots, stems, and leaves • Small size, Larger gametophyte • Require water for sexual reproduction • Kinds of nonvascular plants: • Mosses • Liverworts • Hornworts Benagh

26. Seedless Vascular Plants • Seedless Vascular Plants: vascular plants that do not produce seeds • Vascular system • Larger sporophyte • Drought-resistant spores • Kinds of Seedless Vascular Plants: • Ferns • Club mosses • Horsetails • Whisk ferns Benagh

27. Gymnosperms • Gymnosperms: seed plants who seeds do not develop within a sealed container (fruit) • Have seeds • Have greatly reduced gametophyte • Wind pollination • Kinds of gymnosperms: • Conifers • Cycads • Ginkgo • Gnetophtes Benagh

28. Angiosperms • Angiosperms: flowering seed plants that produce seeds enclosed a specialized structure called a fruit • Flowers • Fruits • Endosperm • Kinds of angiosperms: • Monocots • Dicots Benagh

29. Monocots and Dicots • Monocots and dicots are different types of ANGIOSPERMS! • Monocots: flowering plants that produce seeds with one seed leaf • Most monocots also produce flowers with parts that are in multiples of three • Have long, narrow leaves with parallel veins • Dicots: flowering plants that produce seeds with two seed leaves • Most dicots produce flowers with parts in multiples of two, four, or five • Have leaves with branching veins Benagh

30. Examples of Monocots and Dicots Benagh

31. Legumes: a Dicot Legumes are members of the pea family. Produce protein-rich seeds in long pods. Soybeans, peas, peanuts, alfalfa are all legumes. Many legumes have nitrogen-fixing bacteria which add nitrogen compounds to the soil, enriching the soil Benagh http://www.dietriffic.com/2007/09/09/what-are-legumes/

32. Plant Tissue Types • Dermal Tissue: the protective outer layer of a plant. • Ground Tissue: makes up much of the inside of the non-woody parts of a plant, including roots, stems, and leaves. • Vascular Tissue: tissues that distribute materials efficiently through the plant. • Xylem • Phloem Benagh

33. Dermal Tissue • Dermal tissue is the outside of the plant body • Epidermis: the outer surface layer of cells • In most plants, this is made up of a single layer of flat cells. • On top of the epidermis, there is the cuticle. • Cork: the outer layer of bark of any woody plant • Contain a waterproof chemical and are not covered by a waxy cuticle Benagh

34. Ground Tissue • Makes up most of the inside of plants. • Can have different functions: • Leaf Ground Tissue: full of chloroplasts for photosynthesis • Stem Ground Tissue: stores water, sugar, and starch. • Root Ground Tissue: sores water, sugar, and starch. Benagh

35. Vascular Tissue: Xylem • Xylem is composed of Thick-walled cells that conduct water and mineral nutrients from a plant’s roots through its stems to its leaves. Benagh

36. Vascular Tissue: Phloem • Phloem contains cells that conduct sugars and other nutrients through-out a plants body. • The conducting strands in phloem are called sieve tubes. Benagh

37. Roots • Plants developed roots to absorb nutrients • Roots are made of 3 types of tissue: • Epidermis: the outside layer • Vascular tissue: the conducting tissue, contains the xylem and phloem • Cortex tissue: stores sugar and starch • All roots have a protective covering at the end of the root called a root cap, And tiny root hairs along the side of the root that increase absorption of nutrients by increasing surface area. Benagh

38. Stems • Support the leaves and house the vascular tissue. • Pith: the ground tissue inside the ring of vascular bundles. • There are two types of stems: • Nonwoody stems: belong to plants called herbaceous plants • Vascular bundles are surrounded by ground tissue. • Woody stems: stiff and nongreen stems. • Layers of xylem are on inner rings and make up most of the wood. • Woody stems are protected by cork. • Cork and phloem make up the bark of the tree. Benagh

39. Leaves • Leaves function mostly to allow the plant to perform photosynthesis. THIS IS WHERE THE SUNLIGHT IS ABSORBED! • Mesophyll: the ground tissue of the leaf, which are packed with chloroplasts which allow cells to perform photosynthesis and make the leaves look green. • Levels of organization: • A plant organ, such as a leaf: • contains tissues including vascular (xylem and phloem), ground (mesophyll), and dermal (epidermis). • Each tissue is made of different types of cells. Benagh

40. Flowers • Male Parts: • Anther: the tip of the stamen, which contains the pollen sacs where pollen grains form. • Filament • The anther and filament together make up the stamen. • Female Parts: • Stigma: the segment of the female portion of the flower where pollen grains are received. • Style • Ovary • The stigma, style, and ovary together make up the pistil. • Other Parts: • Petal • Sepal Benagh

41. Movement of Water • Water moves from the roots to the leaves in the xylem. • Basically, water is pulled up through the plant through transpiration pull as water evaporates. • Transpiration: the loss of water vapor from a plant • Root Pressure: root pressure, in plants, force that helps to drive fluids upward into the water-conducting vessels (xylem) Benagh

42. Guard Cells and Transpiration • A stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells that are shaped like two cupped hands. • Changes in water pressure within in the guard cells cause the stoma to open or close. • When the guard cells take in water, the swell, opening the stoma an allowing transpiration to occur. • When water leaves the guard cells, the shorten and move close to each other, closing the stoma and stopping transpiration. • Guard cells regulate transport and transpiration. Benagh

43. Movement of Organic Compounds • Organic compounds move through a plant within the phloem. • Source: the part of a plant that provides organic compounds for other parts • A leaf is a source because it makes starch in photosynthesis • Sink: the part of a plant that organic compounds are delivered to • Actively growing areas are sinks because they need sugar to grow • Translocation: the movement of organic compounds within a plant from a source to a sink Benagh

44. 02/27/13 DOL: For each image below, identify the tissue type or structure! 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

45. Alternation of Generations • Plants, algae, and some protists have a life cycle that regularly alternates between a haploid phase and a diploid phase. • Sporophytes: the diploid phase that produces haploid spores • Gametophyte: the haploid phase that produces gametes by mitosis Benagh

46. Terminology Review • Mitosis: in eukaryotic cells, a process of cell division that forms two nuclei, each of which has the same number of chromosomes. • Meiosis: a process in cell division during which the number of chromosomes decreases to half the original number by two divisions in the nucleus (makes sex cells). • Haploid (n): a cell that has only one set of unpaired chromosomes (one copy of each chromosome). • Diploid (2n): a cell that contains two haploid sets of chromosomes (two copies of each chromosome). Benagh

47. Moss Life Cycles • Sexual reproduction results in a fertilized egg or zygote. • The diploid zygote grows into a diploid sporophyte. • A moss sporophyte grows from a gametophyte and remains attached to it. • The sporophyte makes haploid spores through meiosis. • The spores grow into gametophytes where archegonia and antheridia form. • Archegonia and antheridia make sperm and eggs. Moss Life Cycle In mosses, the gametophyte stage of the life cycle is larger than the sporophyte stage. Benagh

48. Fern Life Cycle • A fertilized egg or zygote grows into a sporophyte. • The diploid sporophyte produces spores by meiosis. • The haploid spores fall to the ground and grow into haploid gametophytes. • Fern gametophytes produce gametes by mitosis. • Sperm from the antheridia swim to the archegonia and fertilize the eggs. • In ferns, the sporophyte stage is what you think of as a fern. The gametophytes are very small. Fern Life Cycle Benagh

49. Pollination • Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the male reproductive structures of a plant to the female reproductive structures of a plant. • Pollination is how plant seeds are produced seed plants. Pollination Benagh

50. Seeds Sprout • Seeds contain a plant embryo that is in a state of suspended animation. • Seeds sprout with a burst of growth in response to certain changes in the environment. • Examples: rising temperature, increased moisture • Endosperm: a triploid tissue that develops in the seeds of angiosperms and that provides food for a developing embryo Seeds Benagh