Chapter 8 Community Ecology: Structure, Species Interactions, Succession, and Sustainability

1. Chapter 8 Community Ecology: Structure, Species Interactions, Succession, and Sustainability Miller – Living in the Environment 13th Edition

2. Pursuit Cheetah Eagle Wolves Ambush Preying Mantis Snowy Owls Humans Predator Tactics

3. Run, swim, or fly fast Highly developed sense of sight or smell Protective shells Thick bark Spines or thorns Chemical defenses Camouflage Warning coloration Mimicry Behavioral strategies Prey Tactics

4. Bombardier beetle Span worm Wandering leaf insect Foul-tasting monarch butterfly When touched, the snake caterpillar changes shape to look like the head of a snake Poison dart frog Viceroy butterfly Mimics monarch butterfly Hind wings of io Moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal

5. (a) Span worm

6. (b) Wandering leaf insect

7. (c) Bombardier beetle

8. (d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly

9. (e) Poison dart frog

10. (f) Viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly

11. (g) Hind wings of Io moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal.

12. (h) When touched, snake caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake.

13. Symbiotic Species Interactions • Symbiosis – relationship in which species live together in an intimate association. • Parasitism • Mutualism • Commensalism

14. Parasitism • One species (parasite) feeds on part of another organism (host) by living on or in the host. • Smaller than the host • Remains closely associated with host and may weaken host over time • Rarely kills its host

15. Mutualism • Two species interact in ways that benefit both • Nutritional mutualism • Pollination, lichens, rhizobium, coral, bacteria • Nutrition and protection • Birds and large animals, clownfish and anemones, mycorrihizae and plants

16. Figure 8-12Page 179 Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros Clown fish and sea anemone Lack of mycorrhizae fungi on juniper seedlings in normal soil Mycorrhizae fungi on juniper seedlings in sterilized soil

17. (a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros

18. (b) Clownfish and sea anemone

19. (c) Mycorrhizal fungi on juniper seedlings in normal soil

20. (d) Lack of mycorrhizal fungi on juniper seedlings in sterilized soil

21. Commensalism • symbiotic relationship that benefits one species but neither harms nor helps the other species

22. Ecological Succession - • the gradual change in species composition in a given area • Primary Succession – gradual establishment of biotic communities on nearly lifeless ground • Secondary Succession – reestablishment of biotic communities in an area where some type of biotic community is already present

23. Mid-successional Balsam fir, paper birch, and white spruce climax community Jack pine, black spruce, and aspen Heath mat Small herbs and shrubs Primary Ecological Succession Late Successional or Climax Community Early successional Pioneer species Lichens and mosses Exposed rocks Time

24. Mature oak-hickory forest Young pine forest Shrubs Perennial weeds and grasses Annual weeds Time Secondary Ecological Succession

25. Midsuccessional Species Elk Moose Deer Ruffled grouse Snowshoe hare Bluebird Late Successional Species Turkey Martin Hammond’s flycatcher Gray squirrel Wilderness Species Grizzly bear Wolf Caribou Bighorn sheep California condor Great horned owl Ecological Succession of Wildlife Species © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning Early Successional Species Rabbit Quail Ringneck pheasant Dove Bobolink Pocket gopher Ecological succession

26. Catastrophic Natural Drought Flood Fire Volcanic eruption Earthquake Hurricane Landslide Disease Human-caused Deforestation Overgrazing Plowing Erosion Pesticide application Fire Mining Urbanization Water and air pollution Loss and degradation of wildlife habitat Gradual Natural Climate change Immigration Adaptation and evolution Ecological succession Disease Human-caused Salinization Soil compaction Groundwater depletion Water and air pollution Loss and degradation of wildlife habitat Introduction of nonnative species Overhunting and overfishing Toxic contamination Urbanization Excessive tourism Changes Affecting Ecosystems

27. Old Concept Succession Climax Community New Concept Biotic change Mature community or vegetative patches Predictability and theBalance of Nature

28. Species diversity Intermediate disturbance hypothesis 0 100 Percentage disturbance

29. Stability – the ability of living systems to withstand or recover from externally imposed changes or stresses. • Inertia – ability to resist being disturbed • Constancy – keep numbers within limits • Resilience – ability to bounce back

30. Precautionary Principle When evidence indicates an activity can harm human health or the environment, we should take precautionary measures to prevent harm even if some of the cause-and-effect relationships have not been fully established scientifically.

31. Grizzly bear NORTH AMERICA St. Lawrence beluga whale Eastern cougar Humpback whale More than 60% of the Pacific Northwest coastal forest has been cut down Spotted owl Fish catch in the north-west Atlantic has fallen 42% since its peak in 1973 Black- footed ferret 40% of North America’s range and cropland has lost productivity Florida panther Chesapeake Bay is overfished and polluted California condor Manatee Kemp’s ridley turtle Much of Everglades National Park has dried out and lost 90% of its wading birds Hawaiian monk seal Golden toad Coral reef destruction Half of the forest in Honduras and Nicaragua has disappeared Every year 14,000 square kilometers of rain forest is destroyed in the Amazon Basin Columbia has lost one-third of its forest Mangroves cleared in Equador for shrimp ponds Black lion tamarin PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTH AMERICA Little of Brazil’s Atlantic forest remains ATLANTIC OCEAN Southern Chile’s rain forest is threatened Environmental degradation Vanishing biodiversity Endangered species

32. Poland is one of the world’s most polluted countries Many parts of former Soviet Union are polluted with industrial and radio- active waste ASIA Central Asia from the Middle East to China has lost 72% of range and cropland Giant panda Imperial eagle EUROPE Japanese timber imports are responsible for much of the world’s tropical deforestation Area of Aral Sea has Shrunk 46% Snow leopard Mediterranean 640,000 square kilometers south of the Sahara have turned to desert since 1940 Saudi Arabia Deforestation in the Himalaya causes flooding in Bangladesh Asian elephant Liberia Oman Kouprey Eritrea AFRICA Mali Yemen 90% of the coral reefs are threatened in the Philippines. All virgin forest will be gone by 2010 India and Sri Lanka have almost no rain forest left Burkina Faso Niger Benin Ethiopia Chad Golden tamarin Sierra Leone Nigeria Togo Congo Rwanda Burundi Uganda Sao Tome Somalia In peninsular Malaysia almost all forests have been cut 68% of the Congo’s rain forest is slated for cleaning Queen Alexandra’s Birdwing butterfly Angola Indonesia’s coral reefs are threatened and mangrove forests have been cut in half Zambia INDIAN OCEAN Nail-tailed wallaby Aye-aye AUSTALIA Fish catches in Southeast Atlantic have dropped by more than 50% since 1973 Madagascar has lost 66% of its tropical forest Much of Australia’s range and cropland have turned to desert Black rhinoceros 6.0 or more children per woman Blue whale A thinning of the ozone layer occurs over Antarctica during summer ANTARCTICA