COPING WITH INADEQUATE AND UNRELIABLE SUPPLY OF WATER

1. COPING WITH INADEQUATE AND UNRELIABLE SUPPLY OF WATER THERE ARE WAYS OUT BUT THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COSTS ARE HIGH AYSE KUDATSOCIAL ASSESSMENT2001

2. Patterns of Water Use demand specification Users Activities (Go to “Users and Activities” Page) (Go to “Users and Activities” Page) attribute specification User demand-specific quality and quantity of water with defined schedule Satisfied Not Satisfied interaction between supply and demand environments Coping Strategies Trust, Loyalty, Willingness to pay (Go to “Coping Strategies” Page) Supply Characteristics Investment Responses Policy Responses

3. Water Users and Activities Shirkats Private Farms Oil and Gas Industry Textile Industry Schools Hospitals Other Institutions Agricultural Users Garden Plots Household Users Industrial Users Institutional Users Small Business Users Cotton production Wheat production Fodder production Livestock Horticulture Potable water Garden plot irrigation Sanitary needs Industrial production Potable water Sanitary needs Potable water Sanitary needs

4. Uses of Irrigation Water Fields Cotton production Wheat production Fodder production Horticulture Irrigation Water Garden Plot Horticulture Vegetables Other Uses Livestock watering Use for leisure/swimming Use for bathing and cleaning

6. Strategies to cope with irrigation water shortages • Shortage of irrigation water forces all water users – from households to management agencies – to seek coping strategies. The Social Assessment identified two main thrusts: • active strategies include searching additional volumes of water, saving available water use, decreasing losses in water distribution, improving the irrigation and drainage network or building new infrastructure, improving the soil, rotating crops, stealing water, and other activities that would help enhance the quantity or quality of the water supply or reduce its demand; • passive strategies are based on ceasing agricultural activities (or some of the agricultural activities), reducing water consumption and productive activity, shifting to other activities, or simply migrating out of the project area. • In the context of the Karshi steppes and given scarcity of water resources, farmers have few opportunities to find an alternative source of high-quality water. In most cases, their efforts towards increasing volumes of water lead to taking water from drainage collectors and/or use the ground water; these practices are not legal. They also steal water from collectors and make informal payments.

7. Active and Passive Strategies for Coping Passive Strategies Active Strategies Make improvements and increase supply Reduce demand Search additional water sources Cease all/some agricultural activity Build new infrastructure Reduce consumption Save water Shift activities Improve irrigation and drainage networks Migrate out of area Improve soil Steal water Decrease losses in distribution Rotate crops

8. Strategies to cope with irrigation water shortages (cont’d) • Some of the coping strategies are widespread; others are less prevalent. Still others, such as privatization, are at their infancy but find support from various stakeholders. Strategies such as paying for irrigation water and/or for its maintenance are also employed and have substantial costs. Groundwater extraction is likewise done; this too has high costs. Other costs such as those associated with political influence and voice have less visible costs.

9. Combining water sources to enhance quality and quantity of Amudarya Agricultural users view the main source of good-quality water for irrigating to be Amudarya. One basic strategy for coping with inadequate supply of good water from Amudarya is the use of Kashkadarya water. To cope in low-flow periods, drainage collectors and underground water stock are used as additional sources of water. Water from collectors is taken mainly with diesel or electric pumps. Yet another coping strategy to enhance the quantity of water is to use ground water. Ground water is extracted with pumps, installed on the vertical drainage or special drilled wells, or hand dug wells. Because the drainage and ground water is highly mineralized, it is mixed with water from river and only then is used for irrigation. Some of the farms irrigate agricultural fields with saline drainage or underground water and do not mix it with water from irrigation system.

10. Coping with de facto and de jure rules of water distribution • Among the various coping strategies is recourse to third party mediation. Often, to solve shirkats' internal problems, shirkat administrations appeal to the rayselvodkhoz. The private farmers with similar problems sometimes appeal to the branches of the Dehkhan and Farmers Association that they are connected to. • Water for irrigating parks, lawns and land plots is taken from canals and is supplied mostly on Saturdays and Sundays. People report that the shirkat administrations prohibit people to water their garden plots (tamarka)---a main source of livelihood. To cope with this problem land plots are irrigated with water from the municipal water supply system (if available).

11. Eliminating locational disadvantages • The content analyses of the participatory and qualitative data show that only a fraction of the stakeholders’ water demand was met during 2000-2001. Meeting water demand depends on the location of a land plot and the crop grown: this dependence becomes much stronger in low-flow periods. Those land users who either receive water from heads of canals, or whose land plots are located close to large canals where they can use additional pumps, receive enough water, at least, to fulfil their contractual obligations to the government. At times of water shortages, farms that have government contracts to grow cotton or grain are favored over others in terms of irrigation. Horticulturist-farmers with downstream lands suffer the most. Some of the horticulture farms have not received irrigation water for more than a year and had to use drainage water, despite harmful consequences for the crops.

12. Coping Strategies for Irrigation Water Uses and Enhancements Fields Garden Plot Nothing Done Use for bathing and cleaning Use for leisure/swimming Livestock watering Sitting Ponds Garden Plot Quality Enhancements User maintenance of irrigation and drainage networks Fields Mix river water with other open sources Sharbat (mixture of dang and water) Soil Improvement Fields

14. Coping Strategies for Irrigation Water Uses and Enhancements Irrigation at night Storage of irrigation water Illegal connection to cement irrigation dykes Illegal connection to open irrigation canal Using irrigation water without additional water sources Exert political influence Resolve conflict over resources with upstream communities Fields Unofficial Payments Maintenance of irrigation and drainage canals Quantity Enhancements Garden Plot 3rd Party Mediation Animal Crop Rotation Irrigation by turn Other Users Boycotts and strikes Meter installations Potable water from pipeline Shallow hand pump Compliment irrigation water with other sources Artesian wells Open Sources (Kashkadarya) Installing electric/diesel pumps

15. Coping through self-improvements in irrigation networks • A majority of farmers say that the key coping strategy to address shortage in irrigation water should be to reduce water losses by reconstructing the system properly. They also point to the need to clean canals of silt. In the recent period, many intra-farm canals were cleaned. Also, regulating and metering devices were installed. • Many stakeholders think that reconstruction of irrigation canals would allow significant reduction in water shortages as the existing canals are in poor condition. • Water users carry maintain the intra-farm networks several times a year and cover expenses themselves. A majority of farms have neither resources nor technical facilities to do a major part of the required maintenance. Many private farmers, especially the poor ones, believe that continued support from the state is their only strategy to cope.

16. Removing artificial shortages of water • People believe that artificial shortages are created in many ways. For example, farmers whose land are located near the end of canals think that water is distributed among water users in an unfair way. They think that water is used by either shirkats or upstream private farmers in excessive volumes. Thus, they feel that a greater transparency in water distribution would help reduce the sufferings of the down stream communities. • Farms which use water from canals passing through densely populated settlements face a difficult situation. Dehkhan farms are denied water despite high dependence on garden plots for subsistence. Many dehkhans beleive that water is used for irrelevant purposes in the “absence of a real owner”. Horticulturist and olericulturist also suffer strongly from water shortage; the administration has reduced or stopped providing water to these farmers. Threatened by sharp reduction in their livelihoods, affected farmers steal water at the night from canals located near their garden plots. Illegal water-taking is frequently done with pumps: water is discharged from one canal to another.

17. Payment for irrigation water is yet another strategy to cope with inadequate water People realize clearly that water cannot free. “We would pay for water whatever price will be charged by the state. As we drink water and use water for irrigation and harvest yield from the land we irrigate, we must pay.” (Shirkat worker, Kasbi district). Almost all water users (private farmers, dehkhans and shirkat workers) believe that they must pay for water. In their opinion, water users must pay. Some are ready to pay for repair and reconstruction of irrigation system, but are not willing to pay for water. No one receives water of the required quality timely and in the volumes they need; thus they say that when the supplier fails to observe its commitments the user cannot be expected to pay. They will be ready to pay high prices and can pay after the harvest; better, some feel, would be to pay a share of the harvest. People also believe that paying for irrigation and drainage maintenance is yet another coping strategy.

18. Saving and accounting for water To achieve more accurate accounting of water received, many farms, especially downstream ones, try to install special water metering devices. Night and evening irrigation is also mentioned as one of the water-saving methods, which is actively being introduced in the recent years. It is said that irrigation of this type allow reducing vaporization-related water loss and water discharge from intra-farm to drainage collector. Combination of water and fertilizers during irrigation, called “sharbat”, is becoming increasingly popular among farmers. This method of irrigation is employed to improve the soil, save water and fertilize crops.

19. Appealing to the authorities • Appealing to the authorities is one of the active coping strategies practiced by people and agricultural enterprises. Some of the private farmers (those who have good knowledge of laws) prefer appealing directly to the authorities for solving water shortage problems. Thus, they have more chances to manage to receiving more water for themselves, on the one hand, and secure themselves should their yield be low because of drought and should a government contract not be met. • "In this situation, one could say that I did appeal and demand water and you knew my problems, but did not help me. Then, it’s not the fault of mine, but of the official who did not provide me with water. " (Private farmer) • If a large group appeals to them in a written form requesting solution for water shortage the strategy is even more effective.

20. Installing of pumps and other devices To increase the delivery of water to agricultural fields, electric or diesel pumps are installed on the canals, drainage collectors, drilled and hand dug wells. Farmers have to pay as much as $200-500 for hectare for small pumps; pumps that can irrigate ten hectares or more are said to cost $1,000-3,000. In rural areas electricity supply is irregular and the cuts are daily. Given this, only part of the fields can be irrigated even when pumps are available. In the case of low water level in canals, to deliver water to agricultural fields, people use chigirs. (Chigir is a water wheel that elevates water to a higher level with the power of water flow. Chigirs were widely applied in irrigation before diesel and electric pumps were applied.).

21. Shifting out of farming or migration to other areas “Exit” from the system is one of the many strategies to cope with inadequate supply of irrigation water. Because of wide-spread unemployment and scarcity of opportunities for non-agricultural employment, if it often difficult for farmers to leave farming and to get another job in the project area. A large number of farmers, however, obtain supplementary incomes from informal jobs. Migration is one of the extreme forms of overcoming water shortage, but does happen.

22. Methods Used in Obtaining Irrigation Water Illegally Close locks on other users’ water gates Drill holes in concrete Install siphons in elevated concrete canals Illegal connection to cement irrigation dykes Damage metering equipment to cover overutilization Damage important main and local canals Pump water out to field at night Install underground pipes Illegal connection to open irrigation canal Dig new canals from the open canal

23. Stealing water • Stealing water is a very acute and widespread problem; it occurs primarily with respect to irrigation water. The people consider it to be a “necessary action” if it serves their own interests, but a “violation” to be punished if stolen from them. • In order to prevent water leakage and stealing, farmers unite and patrol canals by taking turns in small groups. Such groups are also established through the decision of shirkat administrations. • There are many different ways of stealing water, but the most wide-spread of them are: • Taking water from other’s canals into one’s own by closing locks; • Digging aryks; • Pumping water at night using portable pumps; • Installing underground pipes to link to an an irrigation canal (so that the pipe would not be revealed easily); • Drilling holes in concrete flumes and diverting water to nearby fields; • Installing siphons, i.e. special hoses allowing to pump out water from flumes without damaging them due to difference in pressure; • Intentional damaging main flumes and flumes of local importance, including potable water flumes; • Damaging metering equipment so that the over utilization cannot be detected. • Not only the individual farmers but also shirkats steal water from other water users.

24. Coping Strategies for Industrial Water Uses and Enhancements Storage of water Repair damage to broken or stolen pipes Cut back production Industrial Water Enhancements Exert political influence Use additional water sources Unofficial Payments Save water by using new technologies Combat with theft, in cooperation with authorities

25. Industrial water The major coping strategies for the industrial sector are the following: • Production cutback, which is the most wide spread reaction to water shortage; • Using additional sources of water (for instance, the Kasan oil-extraction and textile plants use their own pumps installed on their territory). This strategy requires high expenditures and is unavailable for many enterprises located in zones, in which there is no possibility to drill boreholes; • Water saving by upgrading production technologies, which is applied very seldom and only at up-to-date enterprises; • Negotiations with authorities. Local administrations mainly support only large and strategic enterprises (as well as it happens with agricultural operators). Small enterprises cannot lobby their interests at public organs and water distributing organizations; • Combating with thefts of water, which is carried out in close cooperation with authorities (for example, the Shurtan Complex has a special line rider brigade, which searches illegal connections or pipe damages and has already caught several persons and brought them before the authorities).

27. Coping Strategies for Potable Water Sources and Enhancements Irrigation water (for everything except drinking) Cooking Vendors/tankers Quantity Enhancements Drinking Taking water from neighbors or neighborhood institutions Illegal connection from pipeline Storage in underground tanks On the street Hand pumps Own garden Potable Water In neighbor’s garden Carrying from leaks in pipeline Small electric pumps Informal payments Exert political influence Settling Quality Enhancements Boiling Bottled water

29. The structure of the Dehkan and Private Farms Association Assembly of authorized representatives Auditing commission Council of the Association Executive Office Dehkan and Private Farms Support Fund “ZAMIN” Bank Association’s representation offices in the Republic of Karakalpakstan and in the regions of the Republic of Uzbekistan See the structure on next figure District representation offices of the Association ASSOCIATION MEMBERS Private farms Cooperatives (associations of dehkan and private farms) Dehkan farms

30. Structure of the Executive Office of a district representation office of the Dehkan and Private Farms Association DIRECTOR Service of logistic-technical provision and servicing of dehkan and private farms Conclusion of contracts, production, processing and realization of crop-growing and livestock-raising products Legal, financial servicing, and consulting on preparation of business plans Analysis of production activity of dehkan and private farms Accounting of dehkan and private farms and of monitoring of their activity