Almoravid and Almohad Empires: Society Pt. 2 - Women, Slaves, and Gender Roles

1. The Almoravid and Almohad Empires Society Pt. 2

2. Society Outline: Almoravid and AlmohadPt. I ‘Elites’ Minorities: Christians, Jews Pt. II Women Slaves

3. Gender and Society In some ways, discussion of women is really one of ‘Gender’: Consciousness of differences between behaviour and treatment of women part of larger concern to regulate interaction between men and women – both publically and privately (i.e. marriage)

4. Gender and Society Almoravids and Almohads: examples. . . Ongoing critique of Almoravids as practicing ‘gender inversion’ Ibn Tumart’s concerns about behaviour of both men and women according to proper ‘gender roles’

5. Gender and Society Al-Andalusia: Maliki jurists focusing on issues of improper ‘mixing’ (of both men and women) Even anecdotes: ostensibly about ‘women’ but revealing more about gender in general and its intersection with equally important differentials: class, social status (and of course – religion)

6. Gender and Society Story of the Mistress, the slave girl and ‘the handsome young man’: ‘mistress’ restrained by elite social status but held power over slave Slave had more ‘social freedom’ because of inferior status – but was not ‘free’ Young man not of appropriate ‘class’ to be entertained by mistress, but nor was he slave

7. Society: Women Bennison: two generally held beliefs (not necessarily consistent) Women had higher status in al-Andalus because it was more ‘European’ Women had higher status (in these empires) because Berbers were Matrilineal [inheritance passed through female line]

8. Society: Women ‘Neither Assumption Holds Up’: but difficult to explore Sources (evidence) and issue: written by men about issues of concern to men (e.g. commerce, politics, theology) Never wrote about society’s central reproductive and productive unit: the family

9. Society: Women Family also political unit: Most important political alliances – especially across religious-cultural ‘barriers’ – achieved through marriage (many examples in earlier lectures) Also through concubinage (for more, see ‘slavery’, below)

10. Society: Women Important: both Muslims and Christians had concubines ‘normal’ part of elite/upper-middle class families Difference was with respect to wives: only Muslims practiced polygamy: up to four legal wives (free women) on the condition that each could be treated equally (well)

11. Society: Women Crucial point: Only well-off, elites could afford more than one wife ‘condition’ fed preference for concubines In practice, only significant difference emerged in context of inheritance: wives inherited, concubines did not – children of BOTH considered equal and inherited

12. Society: Women Women and Marriage: also legacy of tribal society Wives held in high esteem because poor treatment engendered response (often war) from her relatives: marriage important for alliances but breakdowns led to conflict Less disruptive in urban areas: limited to interactions between families

13. Society: Women Almoravids: Women appear to have had relatively high status, freedom: had impact on ruling elite Divorce common, without stigma: inferred from Ibn Yasin’sbehaviour (marrying, then divorcing many ‘beautiful women’) [custom has remained in Mauritanian Sahara – ‘serial marriage’, women and men – normal to marry several times, across ‘tribal’ lines and ‘up’ social ladder]

14. Society: Women Unique to Almoravids: identification through mothers normally, Islamic dynasties identify through Father’s line Almoravids sometimes referenced their Mothers but limited to free-born mothers (so: not concubines) – another reason they were criticized for not recognizing ‘gender’ properly

15. Society: Women Almohads: opposite view Literally argued that ‘women’ were at the heart of political instability: cited ‘Ali b. Yusuf’s reign “women took charge of matters and public affairs were entrusted to them and every important amtuna or Massufa woman acted as the protector of rebels, evildoers, bandits and tavern and brothel keepers” (Bennison 158)

16. Society Comparison: Almohads’ critique undoubtedly overstated (but interestingly one that was repeated almost verbatim in 16th-17th century Ottoman empire) Nevertheless points to some real differences in how the two regimes regarded the role of women in public life (difference less in private)

17. Society and Slavery Slavery: most important point: slavery was part of whole medieval world from Europe through Africa through the Middle East – and into India, China Not what ‘we’ understand today as slavery: this is not an issue of judgement – it is one of recognition of how medieval society defined itself and its constituent components

18. Society and Slavery Slavery: in Judaist, Christian, Islamic societies was defined and regulated (by custom and law) Who could be enslaved and how? How should enslaved be treated? What interaction should be permissible between slaves and non-slaves?

19. Society and Slavery Slavery: in Judaist, Christian, Islamic societies was defined and regulated (by custom and law) What positions in society slaves could/should occupy? Under what conditions should slaves be freed?

20. Society and Slavery Islamic Slavery: was in fact amalgam of Christian and Jewish legal practices, built upon by Islamic fuqaha (jurists) By 11th – 13th centuries: debated, mostly decided Contemporary research: looking at interactions between these ‘slave societies’ [e.g. example of Jewish merchant referring to freed slave occupying family role more Islamic than Jewish]

21. Society and Slavery Who were the slaves? Many references to ‘northern’ and ‘Christian’ slaves Some were simply slaves already in al-Andalusia Many were taken in conquests of Christian towns (women, children – children included boys who then grew up into army and administration)

22. Society and Slavery many brought/bought in Mediterranean slave trade Had long supplied Iberia from Eastern Europe, Black Sea regions: continued during this era bringing ‘white slavs’ – those from slavic regions Circassians (Baltic area) very much valued

23. Society and Slavery Who were the Slaves? Black sub-Saharan Africans The Trans-Saharan trade supplied not only gold but slaves from Western Sudan (Ghana Empire) during Almoravid era; Almohads lost control of Sanhajaroutes but developed new ones further East

24. Society and Slavery Eunuchs: Castrated male slaves: both European and African Meant they could not reproduce (biologically); also in European context used to supply sopranos to Church choirs!

25. Society and Slavery What did these Slaves DO? in elite households were ‘servants’: we know little about this from evidence In agricultural projects: most of the ‘geographers’ (Arab writers like al-Bakri) refer specifically to the use of ‘servile and/or slave labour’ in the important sugar cane produced in the Sus region of Morocco [Bennison. 184]

26. Society and Slavery in Government/Administration: eunuchs especially important ‘white eunuchs’ cited several times as ‘gate-keeper’ to the Caliph ‘black eunuchs’ referred to as ‘body-guards’ Both extremely powerful

27. Society and Slavery In army: many mentions Christians, Black slaves References to ‘slave soldiers’ often obscured their status: Almohads definitely included large numbers of Christian slaves Evidence speaks to ‘black’ and ‘white’ slave units: so served together but as units, not individuals.

28. Society and Slavery In the elite/royal families: as concubines Specific to female slaves but not to ‘colour’ or religion: both white ‘Christians’ and black ‘Muslims’ fell under same legal regulations What was important was status as ‘slave’, NOT colour, culture or origin

29. Society and Slavery Concubines central to family: Legal wives limited (to four): this also limited ways in which ‘reproduction’ could be used to cement political and economic alliances Taking of ‘slave wives’ (concubines) allowed for extended ‘alliances’: operated legally exactly the same as marriage

30. Society and Slavery Concubinage and Marriage in Islamic (Maliki) Law: same functions with respect to producing children: marriage contract gave legitimacy to progeny as did ‘ownership of slave, price of purchase acted like bride price Children belonged to ‘free’ family, acquired its social status, able to inherit, ‘born’ Muslim

31. Society and Slavery Advantages: concubine herself did not inherit: family could be enlarged without claims of wife or her kin on property no legal limit on number of concubines (could become disadvantage if there were too many children competing for power, position)

32. Society and Slavery Conversion: a good Muslim master facilitated in the conversion of his (or her) slaves many slaves became Muslim: some acquired freedom, common for them to become trusted employees and/or commercial agents – examples of both in Bennison, ‘Letters’