Human Body Systems Project

1. Human Body Systems Project Nicholas Bien

2. Digestive System

3. Digestive System: Function • The function of the digestive system is to convert the food we eat into smaller molecules that can be used for energy in cells. • The unusable substances are then excreted from the body. http://img.webmd.com/dtmcms/live/webmd/consumer_assets/site_images/articles/health_and_medical_reference/digestive_disorders/yourdigestivesystem_DigestiveSystem.jpg

4. Digestive System: Drawing

5. Digestive System: Mouth • Digestion starts at the mouth. • Food is broken down physically by chewing and chemically by enzymes in saliva. http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/images/2/2d/ITeeth_mouth.jpg

6. Digestive System: Pharynx • The pharynx (throat) the passage between the mouth and the esophagus. • When food is swallowed, a flap called the epiglottis closes over the trachea (part of the respiratory system) to prevent choking. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Illu01_head_neck.jpg/250px-Illu01_head_neck.jpg

7. Digestive System: Esophagus • The esophagus is a long tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. • Muscle movements (peristalsis) propel food down the tube into the stomach. http://www.prajnayoga.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/esophagus_front.jpg

8. Digestive System: Stomach • The stomach is a sac-like organ with muscular walls that mix and grind food. • The walls also secrete strong acids (gastric acid) and enzymes that further break down food. • By the time the food leaves the stomach, it is an acidic, mostly liquid substance called chyme. http://www.umm.edu/graphics/images/en/19223.jpg

9. Digestive System: Small Intestine • The small intestine moves food through over 20 feet of tubes through peristalsis. • The small intestine is made up of three parts: • In the duodenum, acids and enzymes continue to break down food. Bile, which helps to digest fats, is added to the food mixture. • The lining of the jejunum absorbs amino acids, sugar, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals into the blood stream. These molecules soak into the tiny projections (villi) of the jejunum. • The ileum has more villi that absorb the remaining nutrients, especially salts and vitamin B. http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/images/c/c3/Small_intestine.jpg

10. Digestive System: Large Intestine • Billions of bacteria inhabit 5 feet of the large intestine and aid in digestion. • Excess water is absorbed into the blood and the waste is mixed with dead cells to form feces. • The large intestine is made up of five parts: • The cecum is connected to the ileum of the small intestine. • The ascending colon and the transverse colon absorb water and salts. • The descending colon stores food before it enters the sigmoid colon. • The loop-like sigmoid colon connects to the rectum. http://home.comcast.net/~wnor/colon.jpg

11. Digestive System: Rectum • Solid waste is stored in the rectum before it is excreted. • The rectum is about 5 inches in length. http://www.jacksonregionalsurgery.com/Resources/10502/FileRepository//Rectal-Surgery.jpg

12. Digestive System: Anus • When the rectum becomes full, waste is excreted through the anus. • The anus is the end of the gastrointestinal tract. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/prod_consump/groups/cr_common/@cah/@gen/documents/image/crukmig_1000img-12111.jpg

13. Digestive System: Salivary Glands • The salivary glands, which are located in the mouth, secrete saliva for digesting food. • In humans, there are three main salivary glands: the parotid gland, the sublingual gland, and the submandibular gland. http://www.baileybio.com/plogger/images/anatomy___physiology/12._powerpoint_-_digestive_system/salivary_glands_2.jpg

14. Digestive System: Liver • The liver makes bile, which it then secretes through the cystic duct into the gallbladder. • The liver also purifies the blood that contains nutrients coming from the small intestine. http://www.umm.edu/graphics/images/en/19261.jpg

15. Digestive System: Gallbladder • When food is eaten, the gallbladder contracts and pumps bile into the duodenum for use in digesting fats. • The bile travels down the common bile duct into the duodenum. http://medicalimages.allrefer.com/large/digestive-system-organs.jpg

16. Digestive System: Pancreas • The pancreas is a gland organ that secretes enzymes whose destination is the duodenum. • The enzymes reach the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. http://miamitransplant.com/images/pancreas02.jpg

17. Digestive System: Sphincters • Sphincters are circular muscles that regulate the passage of substances by expanding and contracting. • In the digestive system, the primary sphincters are: • The lower esophageal sphincter, which prevents acid from moving up from the stomach into the esophagus. • The pyloric sphincter, which forms the boundary between the stomach and the small intestine. • The ileocecal sphincter, which stops colon contents from entering the ileum. • The internal and external anal sphincters, which regulate the excretion of feces from the body. http://digestivedisease.uthscsa.edu/stomach2.jpg http://studydroid.net/imageCards/0k/lg/card-21676774-front.jpg

18. Digestive System Alimentary Organs Accessory Organs Aid in digestion Physical (chewing) Chemical (secretions) Teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, pancreas • Gastrointestinal tract • Continuous tube • Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus http://encyclopedia.lubopitko-bg.com/images/Accessory%20organs%20of%20digestion.jpg http://legacy.owensboro.kctcs.edu/gcaplan/anat2/notes/Image489.gif

19. Digestive System Physical Digestion Chemical Digestion Done by enzymes and acid in stomach and intestines Breaks food down into simpler molecules • Done by teeth, tongue, and muscles in the stomach • Breaks food into smaller pieces

20. Digestive System:Digestion of Carbs, Proteins, Lipids Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids • Amylase in saliva and stomach breaks down starch into oligosaccharides • Other enzymes such as lactase and sucrase in stomach and small intestine convert oligosaccharides into monosaccharides • The enzyme pepsin in stomach breaks some of the peptide bonds • Other enzymes such as trypsin in small intestine break down polypeptides into oligopeptides • Amino peptidase and other enzymes convert oligopeptides into individual amino acids • Lingual lipase in saliva begins digesting lipids • In small intestine, bile helps break down fats • Pancreatic lipase converts fats into monoglycerides • Lipid digestion is most difficult because lipids not water-soluble

21. Digestive System: Crohn’s Disease • Crohn’s Disease is an inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract. • The symptoms include abdominal pain, bloody stool, and ulcers anywhere from the mouth to the anus. • There are an average of 7 cases per 100,000 people. The disease is slightly more common among women. • Treatment options include anti-inflammatory therapies, biological therapies, or surgery to remove the affected area of the tract. http://www.healingwell.com/images/illustrations/crohns.gif

22. Digestive System: GERD • Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) is inflammation of the esophagus due to reflux of acidic contents from the stomach.It is caused by an incompetent lower esophageal sphincter. • The symptoms include heartburn, acidic taste in the mouth, chest pain, abdominal pain, cough, and hoarseness. • 10% of Americans experience GERD on a daily basis. The increasing prevalence is likely correlated to the obesity epidemic. • Treatments include eating smaller and more frequent meals, weight loss, and acid-suppression with histamine blockers or proton-pump inhibitors. http://images.medicinenet.com/images/illustrations/gastroesophageal_reflux.jpg

23. Digestive System: Bibliography • http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/yrdd/ • http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/digestive/ • http://www.webmd.com/heartburn-gerd/your-digestive-system • http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-body/digestive-system-article/ • http://home.comcast.net/~wnor/largeintestine.htm • http://classes.midlandstech.com/carterp/Courses/bio211/chap23/chap23.htm • http://www.lrn.org/Content/Lessons/digestive.html • http://www.mbc.edu/faculty/pdeeble/BIO151/Web/151Notes/Chapter%2017.htm • http://www.livestrong.com/article/366300-the-digestion-of-carbohydrates-lipids-and-proteins/ • http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/crohns-disease/DS00104 • http://www.ccfa.org/what-are-crohns-and-colitis/what-is-crohns-disease/ • http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001311/ • http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gerd/DS00967

24. Endocrine System

25. Endocrine System: Function • The endocrine system is a system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. • The hormones function to generate changes within cells. • The system regulates functions such as metabolism, development, sleep, and mood. • Exocrine glands such as sweat glands, salivary glands, and digestive glands excrete their products outside of the body. They are not part of the endocrine system. http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/images/atlas/endocrinesystematlas.gif

26. Endocrine System: Homeostasis • Homeostasis (Greek for “standing still”) is the property of organisms to maintain a stable internal environment. • Mechanisms such as positive feedback and negative feedback respond to cellular needs. • Stable temperatures and stable pH levels are necessary for the proper functioning of enzymes. • The endocrine system is the regulator of homeostasis. It secretes hormones in order to control cellular processes and maintain homeostasis.

27. Endocrine System: Negative Feedback • The end product of a cellular pathway functions to switch off the pathway. • Often, the end molecule binds to the allosteric site of an enzyme in the pathway, deactivating that enzyme and the pathway. • In this way, the cell manages to avoid overproducing certain substances. • For example, the hypothalamus secretes TRH, which causes the thyroid gland to secrete T4. The presence of T4 then “feeds back” to turn off the secretion of TRH in the hypothalamus. http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/metabolfbk.gif

28. Endocrine System: Drawing

29. Endocrine System: Diabetes • Diabetes mellitus is a disease characterized by high blood sugar due to the inability to break down glucose. • Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreas fails to produce insulin. Insulin is a peptide hormone that moves glucose into cells for cellular respiration. Individuals with type 1 diabetes lack beta cells, the producers of insulin, in their pancreases. • Type 1 diabetes accounts for about 10% of diabetes cases and begins most commonly in childhood. • Type 2 diabetes is a problem not in the production of insulin but in its function. Individuals with type 2 diabetes have cells that have developed resistance to insulin. Their cells no longer respond properly to insulin. • Type 2 diabetes accounts for about 90% of diabetes cases and is more likely in overweight individuals.

30. Endocrine System: Hyperthyroidism • Hyperthyroidism, or “overactive thyroid,” is a disorder that occurs when the thyroid produces and secretes excessive amounts of thyroid hormone. • Since thyroid hormones regulate the pace of nearly all cellular activities, an excess of thyroid hormones speeds up processes. • Symptoms include weight loss, fast heart beat, anxiety, weakness, and fatigue. • 2-5% of women in the United States have hyperthyroidism. • Women are ten times more likely than men to have hyperthyroidism. • Treatment options include antithyroid drugs, which inhibit thyroid hormone production, and beta blockers, which offset the anxiety and trembling side effects of hyperthyroidism. Triiodothyronine (T3) – a thyroid hormone http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Triiodothyronine.svg/664px-Triiodothyronine.svg.png

31. Endocrine System: Bibliography • http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/endocrine.html • http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/physician-resources/patient-education-materials/atlas-of-human-body/endocrine-system.page • http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookendocr.html • http://www.emedicinehealth.com/anatomy_of_the_endocrine_system/article_em.htm • http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/endocrinesystem.html • http://www.hormone.org/Endo101/page3.cfm • http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001350/ • http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001356/ • http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/hyperthyroidism-topic-overview • http://www.endocrine.niddk.nih.gov/pubs/Hyperthyroidism/

32. Excretory System

33. Excretory System: Function • The function of the excretory system is to remove waste from the body. • The waste products of chemical processes such as metabolism must be excreted from the body. • The primary products for excretion are nitrogenous wastes such as ammonia, urea, and uric acid. • The components of the excretory system are limited to those that function only for excretion. http://www.newyoungworld.com/images/body/excretory_system.jpg

34. Excretory System: Major Parts • The two kidneys eliminate waste from the bloodstream and produce urine. They regulate: • Volume of extracellular fluid • Ion concentration in extracellular fluid • pH of extracellular fluid • Toxicity of extracellular fluid • The uterers are two 10- to 12-inch tubes that connect each kidney to the urinary bladder. Valves prevent backflow of urine. • The urinary bladder is an organ that stores urine from the kidneys before excretion through the urethra. • The urethra carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. It has a specific orientation for each gender. http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/class/bio100/Lectures/Lect16/Image270.gif

35. Excretory System: Kidney Drawing

36. Excretory System: Nitrogenous Waste Ammonia (NH3) Urea (CH4N2O) Uric acid (C5H4N4O3) • 1 nitrogen atom per molecule • Amino groups are released when proteins are converted into carbohydrates. • Ammonia is then formed by the oxidation of amino groups. • Ammonia is toxic and must be excreted. • Marine organisms excrete ammonia directly into water because they have no shortage of water. • 2 nitrogen atoms per molecule • Ammonia is converted into the less-toxic urea. • Urea can be tolerated in higher concentration in the body. • Mammals and amphibians excrete urea to conserve water. • Urea is the primary waste product excreted in human urine. • 4 nitrogen atoms per molecule. • Uric acid is formed from urea. • Uric acid requires more energy to make than urea. • Uric acid is much less toxic than urea. • Reptiles excrete uric acid because doing so requires very little water. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Harnstoff.svg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Harns%C3%A4ure_Ketoform.svg http://0.tqn.com/d/chemistry/1/0/S/S/1/Ammonia.jpg

37. Excretory System: Nephron Drawing

38. Excretory System: Nephron Processes • Filtration – Filtration of blood occurs in the renal corpuscles. Plasma in the glomeruli flows into Bowman’s capsules. Water, ions, salts, glucose, and ammonia are absorbed. • Reabsorption – Reabsorption occurs when materials move from the renal tubules back into the blood in peritubular capillaries. The primary substances reabsorbed are water, glucose, sodium ions, and other ions. • Secretion – Secretion occurs when substances move from capillaries into distal tubes and collecting tubes. Hydrogen ions, potassium ions, ammonia, and other toxic substances are secreted. • Excretion – The fluid resulting from filtration, reabsorption, and secretion flows through the collecting duct to the uterers, destined to be excreted as urine. http://www.nsbri.org/humanphysspace/focus4/f4-148.jpg

39. Excretory System: Kidney Stones • Kidney stones result when salt crystals form around particles of foreign matter, such as bacteria. • These stones prevent fluid from leaving the kidneys through the uterers. • Symptoms include pain in the side or back and pain during urination. • The yearly incidence of kidney stones in the United States is 0.5% of the population. • 80% of those with kidney stones are men. • Most smaller stones pass out of the body spontaneously through urine a few weeks after occurrence. • Pain-relief is often necessary during stone excretion. • Sometimes, surgery is necessary to remove larger stones. http://img.webmd.com/dtmcms/live/webmd/consumer_assets/site_images/articles/health_and_medical_reference/miscellaneous/kidney_stone.jpg

40. Excretory System: Nephritis • Nephritis is inflammation of the nephrons in the kidney. • Glomerulonephritis is inflammation of the glomeruli. • Interstitial nephritis is inflammation of the spaces between the renal tubules. • Nephritis can be caused by infection or by disorders that affect the major organs, such as lupus. • Symptoms include decreased urine output, fever, drowsiness, vomiting, nausea, swelling, and weight gain. • Nephritis can cause loss of a protein that stops blood from clotting, which can result in a stroke. • About 4 in 100,000 people develop acute interstitial nephritis each year in the United States. • There were 61,423 people with primary glomerulonephritis in the United States in 1996. • Treatment includes a diet low in salt and fluid, as well as anti-inflammatory medications and corticosteroids.

41. Excretory System: Bibiliography • http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/e/excretory_system.htm • http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookexcret.html • http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/kidney.htm • http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Excretory_system.html • http://shs.westport.k12.ct.us/mjvl/anatomy/MandalaWeb/excretory.htm • http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/dox/nitrogenouswaste.html • http://www.nsbri.org/humanphysspace/focus4/ep-urine.html • http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/Projects00/memfilt/kidneys.htm • http://www.webmd.com/kidney-stones/understanding-kidney-stones-basics • http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000464.htm

42. Immune System

43. Immune System: Function • The function of the immune system is to protect the body from disease. • The immune system identifies and attacks foreign invaders and substances that are harmful to the body. http://www.dynavax.com/images/immunesys.jpg

44. Immune System: Organs • Bone Marrow (technically a tissue) – creates stem cells that differentiate into cells necessary to the immune system, such as white blood cells, B cells, and thymocytes. • Thymus – operates mostly during adolescence to cause thymocytes to mature into T cells that can identify between “self” and “non-self.” • Spleen – filters blood while its specialized cells, such as T cells, look for invaders • Lymph nodes – filter lymph, a cellular fluid, and identifies foreign matter with specialized cells • Adenoids – present only in children, looks for infection-causing material as it passes through the back of the nasal cavity • Tonsils – trap bacteria and viruses that enter the body through the air http://images.emedicinehealth.com/images/healthwise/medical/hw/n5551350.jpg

45. Immune System: Recognition • Antigens are foreign substances that enter the body. • Certain B lymphocyte cells recognize specific antigens. • B cells produce antibodies that attach to antibodies. • T cells then use antibodies to locate antigens and destroy them. http://www.dynavax.com/images/immunesys.jpg

46. Immune System: Innate & Acquired Immunity Innate Immunity Acquired (Adaptive) Immunity Changes over time Not passed on Specific Examples: B lymphocytes T lymphocytes Specific antibodies • Have from birth • Passed on to offspring • General • Examples: • Skin • Cough reflex • Mucus • Stomach acid http://www.seakylin.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/rituxan1.jpg

47. Immune System: Active & Passive Immunity Active Immunity Passive Immunity Antibodies created elsewhere Temporary Examples: Developing fetus receives antibodies from mother Injections of antibodies for hepatitis or tetanus • Antibodies created in own body • Permanent • Examples: • People become immune from chicken pox after becoming sick once • Vaccinations for the flu create active immunity

48. Immune System: Humoral & Cell-mediated Immunity Humoral Immunity Cell-mediated Immunity T lymphocytes primarily involved Invaded cells and tumor cells recognized Antibodies not specific • B lymphocytes primarily involved • Pathogens in body fluid recognized • Antibodies specific to antigen http://jeeves.mmg.uci.edu/immunology/Architecture/LargeLymph.jpg

49. Immune System: B & T Lymphocytes B Lymphocytes T Lymphocytes Mature in thymus gland Attack antigens directly Faster to respond • Mature in bone marrow • Secrete antibodies • Slower to respond • Originate in bone marrow • Can recognize invaders the second time http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/T-dependent_B_cell_activation.png/300px-T-dependent_B_cell_activation.png

50. Immune System: Antibiotics • Antibiotics affect bacteria by: • Destroying the cell walls • Destroying the plasma membrane • Disrupting DNA replication • Disrupting protein synthesis • Viruses, however, use their hosts’ cellular processes to reproduce, so antibiotics are ineffective. • Antiviral drugs affect viruses by: • Disrupting DNA synthesis in host cells • Disrupting reverse transcriptase • Inhibiting protease http://www.ou.edu/class/pheidole/General%20Bacteria.jpg http://facstaff.cbu.edu/~seisen/Viruses_files/image003.jpg