Nigeria

1. Nigeria

2. Nigeria’s Military Rulers

4. Population: 130 million Territory: 356,668 sq. miles Year of Independence: 1960 Year of Current Constitution: 1979 Constitution still partially in force; draft 1995 Constitution published and revised in 1999 (the 1999 Constitution) Head of State: GoodluckJohnathan Head of Government: GoodluckJohnathan Language: English (official), Hausa,Yoruba, Igbo, (and 250 other ethnic groups) Religion: Muslim: 50% Christian: 40% Indigenous beliefs: 10% Country Bio: Nigeria

5. Hausa-Fulani North Muslim Yoruba Central Both Igbo South Christian

6. Overview: The Big Picture • System of Government: Presidential System • Distribution of Power: Federal System • Electoral System: Single Member District Plurality • Constitution: Constitution of 1999 • Legislature: Bicameral—Senate and House of Rep. • Current Head of State: President Goodluck Jonathan • Head of Government: President Goodluck Jonathan • Current Ruling Party: People’s Democratic Party (PDP) • Major Political Parties: People’s Democratic Party (PDP) All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP), Action Congress (AC)

7. Why Study Nigeria? • Nigeria embodies of the variety of African political experience. • varied heritage • colonial rule • Achievement of independence • Political parties = ethnic cleavages • Social welfare state/responsibility • Pattern of violence and military dominance

8. Cleavages

10. Political Culture and Subculture • Ethnic Identity • Hausa-Fulani • Mostly northern half of Nigeria • Predominately Muslim • Legacy of emirates • Indirect colonial rule • Subsistence farming, rural, generally undeveloped villages • Yoruba • Southwestern Nigeria • Lagos—former capital • Oba and lineage chiefs and the British • Fragmenting effect of multiple ethnic identities • Igbo (lbo) • Southeastern part of Nigeria—OIL RICH REGION (tried to secede) • Predominantly Christian. • Responsive to western culture—Western educated • Developed for market agriculture

11. Cleavages • The importance of ethnicity, religion, and region in the political life of Nigerians cannot be underestimated. • Most contentious political issues influence and/or are influenced by these three identities. • Biafran Civil War 1967-1970 • Explicit ethnic overtones • Eastern Igbo attempted to secede from the country • NO CROSS-CUTTING CLEAVAGES!

12. Political Culture: • Modern political culture characterized by ethnic diversity and conflict, corruption, and politically active military • Patron-Clientelism (prebendalism) • State control yet rich civil society • Tension between modernity and tradition • Religious conflict • Ethnic diversity • Geographic influences

13. Political Culture and Subculture • Nigerian Nationalism • Three major sources • Freed slaves from N.A. others of African descent from the Caribbean • Nigerians who fought for the British in WWII • Frustration with lack of recognition for service • Nigerians who studied in U.K. and U.S. • Military Today

14. Political Culture and Subculture • Democratic Norms and Values • Alternated between democratic and military rule • Had both parliamentary and presidential system • Maintaining stable democracy is challenge

15. Political Culture and Subculture • Democratic Norms and Values • Cycle of Rule: • Democracy • Military rule with promise to return to democracy • Majority party would pass policies very easily and “funnel” resources of the state to its own ethnic group. • This would lead to frustration, hostility, and frequently a coup by one or more opposing parties or ethnic groups. • The Presidential system has been somewhat more successful b/c of separation of powers • Most of educated in Nigeria hold democratic values and have faith in the political process

16. Political Culture and Subculture • Political Role of Women • Position of women varies immensely • Igbo and Yoruba allow women to hold jobs and elected office. • Hausa-Fulani restrict role of women (Islam) and have low rates of literacy and education and jobs • In general Nigerian women vote in similar numbers as men but are underrepresented in government. • Political Corruption • Major problem • All governments claim will change, but don’t (can’t)

17. Public Policy Challenges • Ethnic/Religious Tensions • Civil/Military Relations • Regional Instability • Corruption • Financial transparency • Poverty alleviation • Quality health care • Education • Oil extraction • HIV/AIDS

18. Current Policy Challenges • Key Transition Year of1999: • Nigeria returned to formal civilian rule when Olusegun Obasanjo was elected president. • Test of Current Government: • How can a potentially wealthy country fail to provide basic human needs, education, potable water, reliable transportation and communications, and engage in politics without corruption? • Still ranked as one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world

19. Political Traditions • Independence Era (1960-now) • Parliamentary-Style Government Replaced by Presidential System • Intensification of Ethnic Conflict • Military Rule • Personalized Rule and Corruption • Federalism • Dependence on Oil

20. The Effects of History • Nigerian Independence • October 1, 1960 • Two year honeymoon period • Conflict: tore apart the ruling coalition in the Western region • National census • 1965 law and order broke down in Western Region over election-related fraud and violence • Military ended the First Republic in a January 1966 coup • Is there a role for obas and emirs in modern Nigeria?

21. Environmental Potential and Limitations • Disease • Malaria is a disease that affects most Nigerians • HIV/AIDS: Pull on economy • Population Growth • 45% of Nigeria is under 15 years of age. • Children considered a valuable resource in agricultural societies • Population is growing rapidly = negative impact on growth • Sifting from rural to urban = smaller portion of labor force available for food production = drop in food production per capita

22. Environmental Potential and Limitations • Urbanization • Quickly becoming urban society • Urban infrastructure is strained as a result • Petroleum • The curse of oil! • Nigeria has relied on oil to finance imports and large scale development projects, thus fluctuations in markets control the ability of Nigeria to pay its debts • This has caused high rates of inflation • The location of the oil and the distribution of benefits have had political consequences, most notably in Biafra • Biafra • Igbo population frustrated with central government for not distributing a greater share of oil wealth-thus their attempt to secede • Oil was main cause for Biafran Civil War 1967-1970

23. Environmental Potential and Limitations • Dist. Natural resources: Political Effects • Eastern region of country holds oil reserves • National government view: national resource • Eastern citizens (Igbo) have yet reap full benefits of their treasure • Environmental degradation: east pays price while handing over most of the benefits. • MEND (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta) • TheInternational Environment • Biggest problem: debt it owes Western creditors • Oil curse caused this • Government spends a high percentage of national budget repaying debt—at the expense of social programs.

24. Political Recruitment • Northerners have dominated the leadership of the country under military and civilian rule. • Military power • Educated Igbo's have held leadership positions • Role of Nigerian universities • Civil service • No recruitment of “strangers” • Federal character of appointments of military personnel • Ethnic politics still dominate

25. Political Structure • Parliamentary vs. Presidential • Fusion of power vs. separation of power • British established a parliamentary system like their own

26. Political Structure • Third Republic of 1993 • Constitution of 1999 • From 1983 to 1999, politics in Nigeria consisted of a succession of military regimes that planned a return to democracy • Abubakar handed over power to a civilian regime outlined by a constitution in 1999 • This is the structure of government that has existed since then. • Federalism • Three level federalism: Federal, State and City • The number of states has changed three time—from 3 to 19 to 30 to 36

27. Political Structure • Constitution of 1999 • Calls for independently elected president • Dual chamber of national assembly at the federal level • 3 Senators from each of 36 states, plus one from Abuja • Representatives determined by population • All legislators elected to four year terms • KEY POINT! • Nigerian pluralism; lack of trust by subcultures • No institutional structure can overcome this roadblock.

28. Political Structure • Judiciary: Constitution of 1999 • Supreme Court • Court of Appeal • State and Federal High Courts • Ten northern states maintain shari’a law courts • Overlapping system of judiciary has caused conflict

29. Political Institutions • Executive branch of government has been the most powerful • Current system is a federal system closely modeled after the U.S. presidential system • History • First Republic: British Parliamentary System • Second Republic: American Presidential System • Third and Fourth: Revived Presidential Model

30. Executive Branch Popularly elected to four-year term with maximum of two terms Head of Government Commander-in-Chief of armed forces Head of State Appoints government ministers (confirmed by Senate)—must come from all 36 states Federal Executive Council: Ensures laws are properly implemented President and ministers not allowed to serve in National Assembly

31. Legislative Branch • National Assembly • Bicameral with Senate and House of Representatives • Popularly Elected • All bills must pass both houses and be signed by President • Senate • 109 members: 3 from each state and one from Abuja • House of Representatives • 360 members

32. Judiciary • Responsible for the interpretation of laws in accordance with the constitution. • Supreme Court (highest in the land) • Court of Appeal (federal and state) • Federal High Court (federal and state) • Shari’a Court of Appeal: • Abuja and state courts

33. State Government • Governor who is popularly elected • State House of Assembly • Unicameral • Comprised of popularly elected representatives from local government areas • The number of members in each state assembly is comprised of three times the number of seats in the federal House of Representatives

34. The Military You cannot study Nigerian politics without recognizing the importance of the military in all aspects of political life. Well disciplined, organized, with the ability to make decisions efficiently and effectively One of only sources of national unity Armed forces also seen as more representative than political parties and other institutions of government that are subject to ethnic-based patronage.

35. The Bureaucracy As with many “developing nations”, the bureaucracy has been the source of employment for large numbers of people not engaged in trade or agriculture. Major source of corruption due to political instability, lack of accountability, and massive cash from oil production. Bureaucracy has maintained its power throughout military and civilian rule

36. The Parties • People’s Democratic Party (PDP) • Hausa-Fulani and North • Obasanjo and Umar Musa Yar’adua • All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) 2003 • Formally the All People’s Party APP 1999 • Igbo and East/Southeast • Main opposition party • Ran Former General MuhammaduBuhari in 2003 and 2007. • Action Congress (AC) • Merger of Alliance for Democracy, Justice Party, Advance of Democrats • Yoruba and West/Southwest • Ran AtikuAbubakar in 2007

37. Parties and Elections (History) • 1975 Elections controlled by Federal Elections Commission (FEDECO) • All parties must register with FEDECO • “Federal Character” of parties • Parties had to have at least two-thirds of all states to be able to run candidates • Indep. National Election Commission (INEC) 1999 • Obasanjo was elected under this system PDP • PDP: People’s Democratic Party • As a northerner and a Hausa, he is a Christian and his candidacy received broad popular support

38. Associational groups Labor Unions usually organized by sector Universities source of political activism National Union of Petroleum and Gas Workers (NUPENG) Nigerian Bar Association Nigerian Medical Association No farmer groups…ethnic divisions prevented this. Non-associational Groups Kaduna Mafia A network of powerful northern military leaders who maintain strong influence over military and politics and are engaged in organized crime Patron-Client Networks Powerful political figures are able to mobilize support through personal connections with subordinates Clientelism Interest Articulation

39. Political Participation • Great range in activity • Voting • Civil war • Violence; thugs • Without census data hard to assess • Mobilization of patron-client networks key to victory • Rise in honest and responsive institutions

40. Policy Formation and Implementation • Standard of living has not improved in recent years • Oil revenue has had little impact on GDP • Nigeria spends large portion of budget on military • Has enabled them to maintain a high profile in the region • Increased number of children in schools • Poor performance on providing basic health care • Income gap between rich and poor increased • “national cake”: Federal gov. spends between two-thirds three fourths

41. Policy Formation and Implementation • Dealing with Debt • Borrowed heavily from foreign banks in 1970s • High interested caused debt trap • World Bank and IMF restructured much of the debt • Spending to repay debt highest item in annual budget • The problem of how to deal with debt is one of highest items of priority

42. Policy Formation and Implementation • The Census Issue • Major source of political conflict!...that’s right counting people • More People = More Federal Money • This is because each ethnic group fears that the count will inaccurately reflect larger opposing groups and that the state’s resources will be directed accordingly • Also, in a country where federal subsidies make up the lion’s share of budgetary allocations at all levels, the distribution of population directly effects the distribution of resources.