Introduction to Philosophy

1. Introduction to Philosophy Part One

2. The Nature & Value of Philosophy • What is Philosophy? • Love of Wisdom • Subject Matter • Questions • Science • Religion • Branches of Philosophy • Introduction

3. The Nature & Value of Philosophy • Aesthetics • Defined • Problems • Questions • Aestheticians, Critics & Artists • Epistemology • Defined • Problems • Questions

4. The Nature & Value of Philosophy • Ethics • Morality • Descriptive • Meta • Normative • Applied • Problems • Questions • Logic • Defined • Varieties • Questions

5. The Nature & Value of Philosophy • Metaphysics • Defined • Ontology • Problems • Questions • Social Philosophy • Defined • Problems • Questions

6. The Nature & Value of Philosophy • Other Branches • Regional • Gender/Ethnic Based • Feminism • Hispanic • African-America • Native American • Other • History of Philosophy • Philosophy of Language • Philosophy of Literature • Philosophy of Mathematics • Philosophy of Mind • Philosophy of Religion • Philosophy of Science

7. Popular Misconceptions Regarding Philosophy • Philosophy is Just a Matter of Opinion • Opinions • Misconception • Assumptions • Assumptions • Opinions? • Are all opinions equally good? • Relativism & Subjectivism • Plato’s Reply • Conclusion

8. Popular Misconceptions Regarding Philosophy • Philosophy is Useless • Useful or Useless? • Useless • Useful • Contributions of Philosophy/Philosophers • Science • Logic & Math • Society • Ethics • Benefits of Philosophy • Skills • Broadens the Mind • Side effects

9. Argument Basics

10. Argument Basics • Argument Concepts • Defined • Premise • Conclusion • Inductive • Deductive • Fallacy • General Assessment: Reasoning • General Assessment: Are the Premises True?

11. Deductive Arguments • Introduction to Deductive Arguments • Defined • Use • Assessment • Valid/Invalid, Sound/Unsound • Some Common Valid Deductive Arguments • Reductio Ad Adsurdum • Defined • Form #1/Form #2 • Example

12. Inductive Arguments • Introduction to Inductive Arguments • Defined • Assessment • Strong & Weak Arguments

13. Analogical Argument • Introduction • Definition • Uses • Form • Informal • Strict Form • Premise 1: X has properties P, Q, and R. • Premise 2: Y has properties P, Q, and R. • Premise 3: X has property Z as well. • Conclusion: Y has property Z.

14. Analogical Argument • Assessment • The strength of the argument depends on • The number of properties X & Y have in common. • The relevance of the shared properties to Z. • Whether X & Y have relevant dissimilarities. • Example

15. Argument from/by Example • Introduction • Defined • Form • Informal • Form Premise 1: Example 1 is an example that supports claim P. Premise 2: Example 2 is an example that supports claim P. Premise n: Example n is an example that supports claim P. Conclusion: Claim P is true.

16. Argument from/by Example • Standards of Assessment • Standards • The more examples, the stronger the argument. • The examples must be relevant. • The examples must be specific & clearly identified. • Counter-examples must be considered.

17. Argument from Authority • Introduction • Defined • Use • Form • Premise 1: Person A is an authority on subject S. • Premises 2: Person A makes claim C about subject S. • Premises 3: Therefore, C is true.

18. Argument from Authority • Assessment • Standards • The person has sufficient expertise in the subject. • The claim is within the expert’s area of expertise. • There is an adequate degree of agreement among experts. • The expert is not significantly biased. • The area of expertise is a legitimate area or discipline. • The authority must be properly cited.

19. The Origin of Western Philosophy

20. The Origin of Western Philosophy • Greek Poets • Poets • Greek Gods • Homer & Other Poets • Background • The Natural Order • Morality • Four Concepts of Order • Purposeful Agents • Random, purposeless events. • The amoral fates • Gods sometimes acting on the basis of objective moral principles. • Starting Point for Greek Science & Philosophy

21. The Origin of Western Philosophy • The Origin of Western Philosophy • Introduction • Thales • Influences • Thales • Background • Problem of the One & The Many • Water • The Problem of Permanence & Change • Importance • Monism • Materialism • Theoretical understanding • No appeal to tradition or authority.

22. The Sophists • Historical Background • An Age of Gold • An Age of Irony • Causal Factors • Decline of traditional authority • Relativism • Democracy & individualism • Skepticism • Practical • The masses • Rise of the Sophists • Rise of the Sophists • Skepticism, Relativism & Success • Nomos vs. Physis • Importance of the Sophists • Influence on Socrates & Plato • Important contributions

23. Socrates • Background • Life & Death (470-399 B.C.) • Wisdom • The Real Socrates? • Socrates & the Sophists • Ignorance • The Socratic Method: Questioning • The Dialectic • Stages • Philosophical conversation • A key concept • Ignorance & confusion • Clarification • A better definition & repetition • Realization of ignorance

24. Socrates • The Socratic Method: Argumentation • Finding Flaws • Finding a Structural Flaw • The definition is circular • The definition takes a part to be the whole • The definition is a list of examples • Reductio Ad Absurdum (Reducing to Absurdity) • Assume P • Derive Q from P • Show that Q is absurd or contradictory • Conclude P is false.

25. Socrates • The Method of Counterexample • Too broad • Too narrow • Reasoning & Definitions • Introduction • Inductive Reasoning • Generalization • Universal Definitions • Natural categories • Metaphysics • Introduction • Greek accounts of the soul/psyche • Socrates’ Account

26. Socrates • Ethical Theory • Virtue • Why be moral? • Ethical Intellectualism • Knowledge & Goodness, Ignorance & Evil • Social & Political Philosophy • Distrust of Democracy • Laws • Social Contract Theory • Natural Law Theory • Socrates’ Contributions • Plato • Ethical Theory • Personality

27. Plato • Background • The Death of Socrates • Life 428/427-348/347 B.C. • Comprehensive Philosophy

28. The Apology • Opening of the Trial • Charges • Wisdom & Socrates’ Task • Wisdom • Politicians • Poets • Artisans • Wisdom • The Charges • The Youth • A villainous misleader of the youth • Teaching • Having no gods • Making the worse appear the better cause.

29. The Apology • The Accusers • Meletus-Poets • Anytus-craftsmen & politicians • Lycon-rhetoricians • Charges • Meletus • Charges • A doer of evil who corrupts the youth • Does not believe in the gods of the state but has his own divinities • The Corrupter of the Youth • Socrates will prove Meletus is • A doer of evil • Pretending to be earnest • Is eager to bring men to trial • Questioning Meletus • Meletus claims to think a great deal about the youth • Socrates asks Meletus to tell the judges who improves the youth • Every Athenian, except the sole corrupter Socrates, improves the youth

30. The Apology • Socrates’ Horse Trainer Analogy • One is able to do the horses good • The trainer does the horses good • Others injure the horses • This is true of horses and any animals • The youth would be happy with one corrupter and everyone else improving them • Meletus shows he has never thought about the young.

31. The Apology • The Unintentional Argument • Meletus Agrees • It is better to live among good citizens than bad • The good do their neighbors good, the evil do evil • No one would rather be injured than benefited • No on likes to be injured • Meletus accused Socrates of intentionally corrupting the youth. • Meletus admitted the good do good and the evil do evil • Socrates knows that if he corrupts a man he has to live with, he is likely to be harmed • Socrates either does not corrupt or corrupts unintentionally. • Either way Meletus is lying • If his offense is unintentional, Meletus should have corrected him • Meletus has no care about the matter.

32. The Apology • Religious Charges Against Socrates • Socrates teaches new divinities • Socrates asks if Meletus claims he • Believes in some gods and is not an atheist • Or that they are not the gods the city recognizes • Meletus claims Socrates is an atheist and teacher of atheism • Socrates’ Reply • Meletus contradicts himself • Analogy • Human things and not human beings • Horsemanship and not horses • Flute playing and not flute players • Spiritual and divine agencies and not spirits and demigods.

33. The Apology • Meletus: Socrates teaches and believes in divine beings • If Socrates believes in divine beings he must believe in spirits or demigods. • Meletus’s Facetious riddle: The demigods/spirits are gods, but Meletus claims Socrates does not believe in gods • Meletus claims Socrates believes in gods-if he believes in demigods. • If demigods are sons of gods, there must be gods. • Otherwise, one might as well affirm the existence of mules and deny that of horses and asses. • Meletus cannot prove that one can believe in divine and superhuman beings and not believe in gods, demigods and heroes.

34. The Apology • Wisdom • Fear, Wisdom & Death • Fear of death is the pretense of wisdom • Socrates knows • If they offer him freedom if he stops being a philosophy, he will obey god. • The Gadfly • Socrates is the gadfly to the horse of the state • Why He Did Not Advise the State • One who fights for the right, if he would live even briefly, must have a private and not public station. • The Vote • Socrates is found guilty

35. The Apology • Penalties & Death • Penalty • Prytaneum • A fine • Life & Death • He would rather die than speak in their manner and live • The difficulty is not to avoid death, but to avoid unrighteousness. • Prophecy • By killing men they cannot prevent someone from censoring their evil lives • The easiest and noblest way is not disabling others, but improving yourself. • The Voice • His internal oracle did not give him any sign

36. The Apology • Death is Nothing to Fear • Death is a state of nothingness or a migration from this world. • If death is a state of nothingness, it is an unspeakable gain. • If death is a journey, no good can be greater. • Death is nothing to fear. • No Evil Can Befall the Good • No evil can happen to a good main, either in life or after death. • The time has arrived • So, the oracle gave no sign • Favor • To trouble his sons as Socrates troubled others. • The End • The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our ways-I to die and you to live. • Which is better, god only knows.