Advanced Learning Theories:

1. Advanced Learning Theories: How Students Learn

2. Understanding how students learn is critical Many models and theories address how students learn Translate understanding into practical strategies Theories provide a stepping-stone for educators to understand Previous models are reinterpreted to model online student/teacher interaction. Introduction

3. The behaviorist model is one of the earliest learning models Ivan Pavlov is regarded as the father of this theory Learning has occurred when a student’s behavior demonstrates change Behavior must be observed to demonstrate progress Behavior must be measured in a discrete manner Behaviorist Model

4. Advocates a drill-response mechanism in order to change behavior Pavlov’s experiment with a bell, dog, and food reward Trial-and-error methodology Students should try to perform a task until they succeed When they achieve a positive result, learning is said to have occurred. Behaviorist Model

5. Feedback is critical to guide the learning process Feedback denotes the point at which behavior is changed Feedback directly stimulates change in a student’s behavior Behaviorist Model

6. A measurable task like successfully logging into a website Concepts with a single approach and correct answer It may not be possible to effectively measure a student’s behavior online Too short to change behavior or monitor any change Constant repetition may frustrate and inhibit students Behaviorist Model

7. Resources: • Explore More Weblinks: An Overview to the Behavioral Perspective Play the interactive game Pavlov's Dog Articles: Froyd, Jeff. (2001). Model for Inquiry and Reflection about Learning and Teaching. International Conference on Engineering Education, August 6-10, 2001 Chai, Lin. (2003). To Have or Have Not: An Examination of Feedback, Learner Control, and Knowledge Type in Online Learning. Proceedings of the 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Services, 2003

8. Cognitive Learning gradually replaced behaviorism As motivation and interaction between students and instructors was understood One of its champions was Noam Chomsky Learning is an unobservable process in the human brain Behaviorist model is an insufficient representation Cognitive Learning

9. Feedback is still vital Student receives the necessary behavior correction Student experiences satisfaction from feedback Reception of information through both visual and auditory channels Identifies short-term and long-term memory as crucial aspects of learning Cognitive Learning

10. Learning takes place when a learner processes information Online, cognitive learning holds an obvious place Able to provide materials in dual-and multi-modal fashion Test both short-term and long-term retention of information Cognitive Learning

11. Resources: • Explore More Articles: Pintrich, Paul R. (1999). The Role of Motivation In Promoting and Sustaining Self-regulated Learning. International Journal of Education Research. Vol. 31, 1999, pp. 459-470. Strauss, S. (2000). Theories of Cognitive Development and their Implications for Curriculum Development and Teaching. In B. Moon, M. Ben-Peretz, and S. Brown (Eds.), Routledge International Companion to Education (pp. 33-50). London: Routledge.

12. Social interaction theory dismisses behaviorism and cognitive learning Albert Bandura is credited with the genesis of this model in the 1970s Learning is not just an interaction between instructor and student Learning can occur within the environment around the student Students may learn from various social interactions Social Interaction

13. The spread of behaviors through indirect channels may be social contagion Violence on TV may affect some students via social contagion Students learn the behaviors modeled by instructors Students learn from other students Ensure that no unwanted behaviors are being modeled Social Interaction

14. Resources: • Explore More Web: Social Learning Theory Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura) Articles: Conte, Rosaria. (2000). Intelligent Social Learning. In AISB’00 Symposium on Starting from Society: The Application of Social Analogies to Computational Systems, Birmingham, AL, 2000, pp. 1-11.

15. Students learn “from”the world Students should drive the learning process Collaborative activities are critical segments of constructivist learning Shared experiences can reinforce concepts Students personalize their learning Constructivist Educational Model

16. Online and blended learning are natural expressions of the constructivist model Students share with each other in the classroom environment Students take learning with them to the next course Constructivism is the most complete overview of learning process The following models may be referred to as strategies Constructivist Educational Model

17. Resources: • Explore More Web: CSCL Theories Articles: Edelson, D., Pea, R., and Gomez, L. (1996). Constructivism in the Collaboratory. In B. G. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist Learning Environments: Case Studies in Instructional Design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Pp. 151-164. Oliver, Ron, Omari, Arshad, and Herrington, Jan. (1997). Exploring Student Interactions in Collaborative World Wide Web Learning Environments. In Proceedings of ED-MEDIA/EDTELECOM 1997, Calgary, Canada, June 14-19, 1997, Volume II, pp. 812-817.

18. Students learn through different channels and situations Advocates the use of a variety of educational methodologies and tools Students must practice critical thinking and active learning skills Strategic implementation of constructivism Instructors are encouraged to engage students’ minds, bodies, and souls Integrative Model

19. Course material should be “integrated” Within an History course, writing skills are promoted Online environment is an excellent venue for utilizing integrative strategies Integrative materials across courses requires buy-in from the school Integrative Model

20. Resources: • Explore More Weblinks: Integrative Education Articles: Braunger, Jane, and Hart-Landsberg, Sylvia. (1994). Crossing Boundaries: Explorations in Integrative Curriculum. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory for the Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

21. Direct instruction is the traditional view of higher education A professor “professes” the subject matter to students Includes lecturing, one-to-one teaching, Q&A and didactic teaching In every course, direct instruction must occur The lecture material must be clear and direct Direct Instruction Model

22. Resources: • Explore More Web: Instructional Strategies Online Articles: Veenman, Simon, Denessen, Eddie, van den Oord, Ingrid, and Naafs, Ferdy. (2003). The Influence of a Course on Direct and Activating Instruction upon Student Teachers’ Classroom Practice. The Journal of Experimental Education, 71(3), pp. 197-225.

23. Straddles the line between direct instruction and collaborative work Involves the quiet, shy and non-participating students Ideas from lectures may be clarified, further explored, and broadened Students can challenge the instructor, concepts, and each other Discussions must be focused within a safe and respectful atmosphere Lecture/ Discussion Model

24. Resources: • Explore More Articles: Pimental, Maria da Graca, Ishiguro, Yoshihide, Kerimbaev, Bolot, Abowd, Gregory D., and Guzdial, Mark. (2001). Supporting Educational Activities through Dynamic Web Interfaces. Interacting with Computers. 13(3), pp. 353-374. Davis, Robert L., and Ragsdell, Kenneth M. (2000). Design of an Effective, Web-Based, Global Learning Environment Using the Keller Plan. International Conference on Engineering

25. Concept attainment tests students’ understanding of concepts An individual assignment It can bridge the gap between individual and collaborative activities Concept Attainment Model

26. Students are presented with an identification concept “Investments with a ROI of greater than 3%” “Bond with guaranteed 4.1% rate of return” “Savings account with 1.5% rate of return” Students quantify or classify them according to the preset structure Concept Attainment Model

27. Concept Attainment is ideally suited to online delivery Assignment can be researched online and easily adapts to groups or individuals Provide a clear overview of the concept Clarify any incorrect classifications students may have made Concept Attainment Model

28. Resources: • Explore More Web: In-service Activities and Teaching Techniques to Promote Gender Equity Additional PowerPoint: Concept Attainment

29. Developed as a way to help medical students learn biological processes Students are presented with problems they must solve by researching content Learning occurs when students are presented with real-world cases Students solve the problems or determine how best to proceed Problem-Based Learning Model

30. Problem-based learning is also referred to as inductive learning Inquiring learning, discovery learning, and just-in-time learning Easily implemented in online environments Temptation to co-opt or plagiarize solutions to questions IDs and instructors should craft individual, thought-provoking questions Problem-based Learning Model

31. Resources: • Explore More Articles: Mahling, D.E., Sorrows, B.B., and Skogseid, I. (1995). A Collaborative Environment for Semi-structured Medical Problem Based Learning. Proceedings of CSCL'95. Prince, Michael J., and Felder, Richard M. (2006). Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, Comparisons, and Research Bases. Journal of Engineering Education, 95(2), pp. 123-138. Fox, Geoffrey C., Furmanski, Wojtek, Nilan, Michael S., and Small, Ruth V. (1994). Assessing Virtual Reality for Education. Proposal to the National Science Foundation, January 1, 1994.

32. STAD (Student Teams-Achievement Divisions) Addresses the need for collaborative assignments for critical thinking Instructor presents a concept Students are grouped into teams of 3-4 members The teams work together, then each student is tested individually STAD

33. Teams may complete a project, study a concept or solve a problem Student teams provide for socialization, social learning and sense of community Difficult for students to collaborate over diverse time zones Collusion or “riding on the coattails” Difficult to assess the contribution of each student STAD

34. Resources: • Explore More Additional PowerPoint: STAD Articles:Slavin, Robert E. (1977). Student Teams and Achievement Divisions: Effects on Academic Performance, Mutual Attraction, and Attitudes. Report No. 233 for the National Institution of Education. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization of Schools.

35. Instructors are hampered by the end-of-course student questionnaires Courses are designed by instructional designers and curriculum managers Students are able to learn from the spoken as well as written word Some instructors may record voice announcements and explanations Use a concept attainment question in the discussion board Adapting Instruction To Improve Effectiveness

36. Listen to the students Learn if classroom materials could benefit from an improvement Use student comments throughout the course Discover areas where students may need extra resources Adapting Instruction To Improve Effectiveness

37. Convey your students’ concerns to your Department Chair Address concerns with IDs or Curriculum Managers as appropriate Adapting Instruction To Improve Effectiveness

38. Faculty members must lead the way Devise more coherent programs of general education Devise more useful, authentic assessments of student learning Institutional reward systems must provide more incentives More recognition for faculty contributions that increase student success Final Thoughts

39. Resources: • Explore More Web: Improving Service Quality in Distance Education Articles:(2005). Accountability for Better Results - A National Imperative for Higher Education. State Higher Education Executive Officers with support from the Ford Foundation. Retrieved 5 Dec. 2007 from: Accountability for Better Business