Chapter 10: Theories of Learning

1. Chapter 10: Theories of Learning Unit 4 – AOS 1 Learning Pages 452-540

2. Study Design Content • applications of, and comparisons of, learning theories: – classical conditioning as informed by Ivan Pavlov: roles of neutral, unconditioned, conditioned stimuli; unconditioned and conditioned responses – applications of classical conditioning: graduated exposure, aversion therapy, flooding – three-phase model of operant conditioning as informed by B.F. Skinner: positive and negative reinforcement, response cost, punishment and schedules of reinforcement – applications of operant conditioning: shaping, token economies – comparisons of classical and operant conditioning in terms of the processes of acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination, spontaneous recovery, role of learner, timing of stimulus and response, and nature of response (reflexive/voluntary) – one-trial learning with reference to taste aversion as informed by John Garcia and Robert A. Koelling(1966) – trial-and-error learning as informed by Edward Lee Thorndike’s puzzle-box experiment – observational learning (modelling) processes in terms of the role of attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement as informed by Albert Bandura’s (1961, 1963a, 1963b) experiments with children – insight learning as informed by Wolfgang Kőhler – latent learning as informed by Edward Tolman • the extent to which ethical principles were applied to classic research investigations into learning including John Watson’s ‘Little Albert’ experiment

3. Conditioning • There are many different types of learning many of which will be examined in this chapter • Classical conditioning • Trial and error learning • Operant conditioning • One trial learning • Observational learning • Insight learning • Latent learning • Conditioning is the process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment (one event) and a behavioural response (another event)

4. Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning was first described by Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov (1899) while he was conducting research into the digestive system of dogs. • Fig 10.1 – 10.3 – Pavlov and his Dogs, pg. 453-454 • In the course of his research, Pavlov observed that the dogs not only salivated at the sight of the food and when the food enters their mouths, but also at the sight or sound of the laboratory technician that was feeding them.

5. Pavlov’s Dogs • These unintentional observations intrigued Pavlov and he decided to conduct experiments under controlled conditions in order to systematically investigate the phenomenon. • Pavlov’s subsequent experiments provided clear evidence of a very simple form of learning which was based on the repetitive association of two different stimuli.

6. Pavlov’s Dogs • A stimulus is any event that produces a response from an organism. • A response is a reaction by an organism to a stimulus. • In Pavlov’s experiment, the stimulus of food initially produced the response of salivation. • Eventually the sight or sound of the technician became the stimulus that produced the salivation response.

7. Pavlov’s Dogs • The salivation response, which is controlled by the peripheral nervous system and occurs involuntarily, had now been associated with and conditioned to a new stimulus (the sight and sound of the technician). • This process by where the dog learned to associate the sight or sound of the technician with food, in essence, is the process of classical conditioning.

8. Pavlov’s Dogs

9. Pavlov’s Dogs • Classical Conditioning refers to a simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two different stimuli. • Learning is said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce. • It results from combining this stimulus over a number of trials until the stimulus becomes associated or linked with the response.

10. Pavlov’s Dogs • In further studies again, Pavlov found that he could bring on the salivation response with stimuli such as – a bell, music, touch, light and even the sight of a circle.

11. Elements of Classical Conditioning • There are 4 key terms used to describe the process of classical conditioning. These are: • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) • Unconditioned Response (UCR) • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • Conditioned Response (CR)

12. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) • The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is any stimulus which consistently produces a particular naturally occurring automatic response. • In Pavlov’s experiments, the unconditioned stimulus was the food. • Another example of an UCS is the feeding of a cat. This UCS will cause the dog to rub its body against the persons leg.

13. Unconditioned Response (UCR) • The unconditioned response (UCR) is the response which occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented. • An UCR is a reflexive involuntary response that is predictably caused by an UCS. • In Pavlov’s experiments the UCR was the salivation of the dogs to the presence of food. • In the example of the cat – the UCR would be the action of running up to the person feeding them and rubbing against them

14. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • The conditioned stimulus (CS) is the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response; but through repeated association with the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus triggers the same response as the UCS. • Association refers to the pairing or linking of one stimulus with another stimulus (usually a stimulus that would not normally produce an automatic response).

15. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • In Pavlov’s experiments, the bell was the conditioned stimulus that was linked with the food that was given to the dog (UCS). • For the cat the CS may be the appearance of the can opener or the sound of the can. • The can learns to associate this auditory experience (CS) with the pleasurable sensation of feeding (CR).

16. Conditioned Response (CR) • The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS). • The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS. • Pavlov’s dogs demonstrated the Conditioned Response when the food (UCS) was removed and the bell (CS) caused the dogs to salivate. • Fig 10.6 - Process of Classical Conditioning, pg. 457

17. Classical Conditioning

18. Classical Conditioning • Learning Activity 10.2– Review Questions, pg. 459 • Learning Activity 10.3– Identifying Elements of Classical Conditioning, pg. 459

19. Classical Conditioning • In the course of his research Pavlov distinguished five major processes that may be involved in conditioning. • These have been known as: • Acquisition • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery • Stimulus Generalisation • Stimulus Discrimination

20. Acquisition • Acquisition is the overall process during which the organism learns to associate two events (the CS and the UCS). • During acquisition, the presentations of the CS and UCS occur close together in time and always in sequence. • The duration of the acquisition stage is usually measured by the number of trials it takes the CR to be acquired (learned).

21. Acquisition • The rate of learning is often very fast in the early stages of the acquisition phase. • One of the important considerations in classical conditioning is the timing of the CS and UCS pairing. • Pavlov found that a very short time between presentations of the two stimuli was most effective.

22. Extinction • A conditioned stimulus-response connection does not necessarily last forever and there are situations when the association between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the conditioned response (CR) needs to be extinguished (ie: in therapy for a problem behaviour). • Extinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a response that has been conditioned when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer present.

23. Extinction • The dogs eventually ceased salivation in response to just the bell alone after continual repeated trials on classical conditioning. • The rate in which extinction occurs varies between individuals. • It also varies on the type of response (ie Stop flinching compared to the removal of a phobia – which will take longer to remove?).

24. Spontaneous Recovery • Extinction is not always permanent. • Spontaneous Recovery of the CR may occur. • Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented, following a rest period when the conditioned response has appeared to be extinguished. • If extinction was to continue – eventually spontaneous recovery will cease to occur.

25. Stimulus Generalisation • Once a person or an animal has learned to respond to a conditioned stimulus, other stimuli which are similar to the conditioned stimulus may also trigger the conditioned response (but usually at a reduced level). • Pavlov observed that his dogs began to salivate when it heard noises that were similar to the sound of the bell. • This phenomenon is called stimulus generalisation.

26. Stimulus Discrimination • The opposite to stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination occurs when a person or animal responds to the conditioned stimulus only, and not to any other similar stimuli. • In Pavlov’s experiment, stimulus discrimination would occur if the dog only salivated over the experimental bell, and not to any other type of bell. • In humans, stimulus discrimination would occur if a person with a phobia of large dogs, doesn’t flinch or have a fear of small dogs.

27. Classical Conditioning

28. Classical Conditioning • Box 10.2 – Factors influencing classical conditioning, pg. 462 • Learning Activity 10.4– Review questions, pg. 463 • Learning Activity 10.5– Key terms in classical conditioning, pg. 463 • Learning Activity 10.6 – Summarising key processes of classical conditioning, pg. 464

29. Applications of Classical Conditioning • Learning through classical conditioning is by no means restricted to salivating dogs. Pavlov’s scientific approach to conditioning can help us understand a great deal about our own everyday behaviour, from simple behaviour through to more complex behaviour.

30. Conditioned Reflexes • Classical conditioning plays an important part in how we learn to adjust to our environment. • Many of our behaviours that involve no conscious effort may appear to be innate, but actually arise from prior experience. • Such behaviours have been described as conditioned reflexes. • A conditioned reflex is an automatic process that occurs as the result of previous experience.

31. Conditioned Reflexes • By learning to associate stimuli in our everyday experience, we gain information about our environment, some of which we take for granted but which is nevertheless valuable. • Examples of conditioned reflexes include: • Going silent when the lights dim in a cinema. • Hitting the brakes as soon as you see the lit brake lights of the car in front of you.

32. Conditioned Reflexes • Reaching for your mobile phone when you hear anyone’s phone ring. • Yelling ‘BALL’ as soon as a player is tackled with the football. • Responding to somone’s greeting without actually thinking about an answer. • Running outside when you hear the sound of the gelati van in your neighbourhood.

33. Conditioned Emotional Responses • Many people cringe at the sound of a dentist’s drill. Yet there are other things that sound the same but we don’t have the same response. • The sound of the drill has become a conditioned stimulus which, through association with the unconditioned stimulus (pain/discomfort), elicits a conditioned emotional response (fear). • A conditioned emotional response is an emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response. • Learning Activity 10.7 – Review questions, pg. 467

34. Watson’s experimentation with little Albert B. • One of the most controversial and best known studies which used classical conditioning to intentionally condition an emotional response was first reported in 1920 by US psychologist John B Watson. • Their research was designed to test the notion that fears can be acquired through classical conditioning. • Their research participant was Albert B, the 11-month old son of a woman who worked at the same clinic as Watson.

35. Watson’s experimentation with little Albert B.

36. Watson’s experimentation with little Albert B. • The story of Albert B – Read pg. 467-469 • Learning Activity 10.8– Review questions, pg. 470

37. Watson’s experimentation with little Albert B. • Watson’s experiment is famous due the ethical considerations prevalent in the research • In what ways was the study in breach of ethics as we now know them?

38. Graduated Exposure • In most cases a CR acquired through classical conditioning will extinguish if the UCS is not paired with the CS at least occasionally • However the association is sometimes so strong and well-established that it persists over time and is difficult to extinguish unless there is some kind of intervention

39. Graduated Exposure • Graduated exposure involves presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS itself does not produce the CR • This technique involves gradually and progressively introducing or exposing the individual to increasingly similar stimuli that produce the CR, and ultimately to the CS itself

40. Flooding • Flooding involves bringing the client into direct contact with the anxiety or fear producing stimulus, and keeping them in contact with it until the CR is extinguished • It is believed that people will stop fearing the stimulus and experiencing the fear associated with it when they are exposed to it and made to realise that it is actually quite harmless

41. Aversion Therapy • When people develop behaviours that are habitual and harmful to themselves or to others, such as substance dependence, a gambling addiction or other habit, it is often difficult to help them permanently stop the unwanted behaviour. • This is especially the case when the behaviour is immediately followed by a sense of pleasure, or relif from discomfort.

42. Aversion Therapy • Aversion Therapy is a form of behaviour therapy that applies classical conditioning principles to inhibit or discourage undesirable behaviour by associating or pairing it with an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus such as a feeling of disgust, pain or nausea. • A key aspect of aversion therapy is the use of punishment to suppress or weaken the undesirable behaviour.

43. Aversion Therapy • Aversion therapy is often used to treat alcoholism by associating alcohol (NS – CS) with a drug (UCS) that induces nausea (UCR) • This pairing will lead alcohol (CS) to produce nausea (CR) • Aversion therapy can have limitations with individuals with chronic alcoholism – the learned aversion can often fail to generalise to situations other than those in which the learning took place • Case study – Brendan Fevola

44. Aversion Therapy • Learning Activity 10.9 – Review questions, pg. 476

45. Trial and Error Learning • Classical conditioning cannot explain behaviour which is voluntary – behaviour which we can control. • Much of our learning comes from trial and error. • Trial and error learning involves learning by trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved • It involves; • Motivation (a desire to achieve a goal) • Exploration (an increase in activity) • Responses (correct or incorrect) • Reward (the correct response is made and rewarded)

46. Thorndike’s Experiments with Cats • At about the same time as Pavlov, US psychologist Edward Thorndike was conducting the first noted studies on operant conditioning. • Thorndike designed a box in which he put a hungry cat. Outside the box he place a piece of fish. • The only way the cat could get to the food was to push a lever which would release the door.

47. Thorndike’s Experiments with Cats

48. Thorndike’s Experiments with Cats

49. Thorndike’s Experiments with Cats • Initially the cat bit the bars and tried to claw its way out for about 10 minutes, until it accidentally knocked the lever and opened the door. • When placed in the box again, the cat went through another series of incorrect responses until it knocked the lever again. • Eventually the cat became progressively quicker at opening the door and pushing the lever was no longer a random pattern – but instead a deliberate one.

50. Thorndike’s Experiment with Cats