Postgraduate Chinese students’ response to academic discourse in pre-Masters EAP

1. Postgraduate Chinese students’ response to academic discourse in pre-Masters EAP Jill Haldane Edinburgh University

2. Separated by 11,106 miles Old College, Edinburgh Business School, Auckland, NZ

3. about discourse Discourse

4. Academic Discourse definition language use to communicate in the academic community by studying English in written genres to develop effective academic writing texts (Introductory lecture, EAP 1 pre-masters’ course, UoE) ‘Academic discourse refers to the ways of thinking and using language which exist in the academy.’ (Hyland, 2009) Important for EAP teaching as well as learning? ‘To be able to recognize and explore disciplinary differences and how they influence the way knowledge is expanded and communicated, and have a high level of systemic language knowledge including knowledge of discourse analysis’. (BALEAP, 2008)

5. RQs, RQs RQs, RQs RQs, RQs How do Chinese pre-masters’ students use textual meta-discourse to organise coherent text? How does the sample set develop rhetorical/coherence relationships between ideas in argumentative text?

6. Aims of the presentation • Contextualise and exemplify coherence and cohesion terms: meta-discourse, rhetorical/coherence relations, signalling. • Examine 2 aspects of coherence by Chinese pre-master’s students • Metadiscourse in persuasive text to signal the organisation of the text • Rhetoric relations with/out signalling concessive relations in argumentation 3. Consider implications of my study and others’ research for learning & teaching academic discourse on EAP pre-masters’ course.

7. Purpose of the presentation 1. To raise awareness of how meta-discourse is used for effective organisation of content by pre-masters’ students with IELTS 5.5-7.0 2. To raise awareness of how rhetorical/coherence relations, specifically concessive relations, is used to guide the reader through the line of argument. 3. To compare the findings of the NZ study and my study in order to consider the impact of academic discourse instruction on the observed student response.

8. Rationale for studying academic discourse in building coherence Hyland, 2009: 6: postgraduate text long and complex Struthers, Lapadat & Macmillan, 2013: limited research to date since “coherence is not directly observable.” Bitchener & Basturkmen, 2006; Cooley & Lowkowicz, 1995; Lorenz, 1999: students find coherence and connectedness difficult to achieve. Cotton & Wilson, 2011: assessors cannot clearly distinguish cohesion and coherence as a criteria. (Rahman, 2011)process-based academic writing course design focuses on stages rather than language in specific use. Defining coherence is relevant for students, EAP writing teachers and assessors (subject lecturers, supervisors)

9. Definition of meta-discourse (Dafouz-Milne, 2008) Linguistic and syntactic features explicitly used by writers to: • help readers decode the message • share the writer’s views with the reader • reflect the particular conventions that are followed in a given culture. Interpersonal metadiscourse • reflects the writer’s stance towards both the content in the text and the potential reader i.e; hedging modals, attributers (as the President claimed), certainty markers (certainly, undoubtedly) Hyland (2004) and Hyland and Tse (2004): all meta-discourse is interpersonal Thompson (2001): ‘interactive’ (instead of textual) , ‘interactional’ (instead of interpersonal)

10. Textualmetadiscourse • Guides the reader to understand content such as ideas and their inter-relation to understand a line of reasoning/argument • Signals organisation of the text with one word (‘furthermore’, ‘and’) or a full sentence (‘the next point covered in this article deals with the topic of economy’) ‘The organisation of ideas and information plays a key role as what is said sets up expectations about what will follow’ http://peabody.jhu.edu/conservatory/humanities/writing/metadiscourse.html

11. Rhetorical/coherence relations a pragmatic function that one utterance (or larger stretch of text) fulfils with respect to another, e.g causal connection, elaboration, explanation, parallel connection, contrastive connection, result connection. ’For every part of a coherent text, there is some function, some plausible reason for its presence, evident to readers, and furthermore, there is no sense that some parts are somehow missing’ (Mann, 1988) (Kamalski, 2007: 18) writer’s linguistic signals guide understanding of causal relations of ideas; e.g., because , that is why (Hyland & Tse, 2004: 158) signals a)indicate topic shift, b)signal sequences, c)connect ideas, d) preview forthcoming content

12. Concession Concessions – partial agreement of argument, before presenting a stronger argument against that view Thompson (2001) – concessive relations are type of rhetorical relation that introduce and concede in a stretch of discourse to the validity of a counter/opposing argument. Signals/Markers are single or multi-word units of language that mark for the reader stretches of discourse as pragmatically relevant • It is true that .. • Certainly /Indeed, ... • X should be considered: ... • It cannot be denied that...

13. Example of concessive relations, refutation and signals An individual has their own right to freedom.It is also true thatsmoking nicotine is designated areas is not an illegal act. However, medical evidenceproves that second hand smoking is harmful. Whilenobody has the right to harm the health of another,smoking, arguably, does just that. Green – introduction of argument point Red – markers of concessive relations in the discourse Black – Counter-argument Blue –support to refute/falsify counter-argument Brown – concluding claim

14. Examples of concession with/without signals Concession with one signal Co-educational schools achieve superior social outcomes, but single sex schools produce better academic results Concessionwith two signals However, while co-educational schools achieve superior social outcomes, single sex schools produce better academic results. Concession with no signal Co-educational schools achieve superior social outcomes. This is not the case in single sex schools, which produce better academic results.

15. Research design Stratified random sampling to identify 20 Chinese pre- masters’ students with IELTS overall score range 5.5 – 7.0 • 7 x 5.5; 7 x 6.0; 6 x 6.5; 1 x 7.0 • cohorts in EAP Block 2 in English Humanities Social Science (EHSS) and English Science Technology Management (ESTM) • pre-masters Week 6 of 10 week course at UoE in Summer 2016 • discursive essay, The Impact of Globalisation on Higher Education’ (1200 words) + 5 recommended sources • Qualitative methodology and dual approach to form and function in discourse analysis

16. Replicated methods and approaches Replication of Basturkmen and Van Randow (2014) paper in JEAP (16), titled:Guiding the reader (or not) to re-create coherence: Observations on postgraduate student writing in an academic argumentative writing task. 1. Replicate methodology – using Nvivo qualitative data analysis software 2. Replicate two approaches to discourse analysis: 1. form of metadiscourse; and 2. function of coherence/rhetorical relations 3. Replicate level of discourse – ‘fairly advanced’ argumentative/persuasive academic writing 4. Replicated aim: Meta-discourse in persuasive text to signal the organisation of the text and concessive relations in argumentation with/without signalling

18. Descriptors of coherence and cohesion mark sheet criteria A Logical and reader-friendly organisation with effective use of cohesion devices and paragraphing B Mostly logical organisation and occasional inappropriate use of devices and paragraphing C Some flaws in organisation but reader can follow argument without difficulty. A number of errors in using cohesion devices and paragraphing D Noticeable problems with organisation and/or cohesion make it difficult forthe reader to follow Criteria clear? Cotton & Wilson, 2011:assessors cannot clearly distinguish cohesion and coherence criteria on marking sheets What is cohesion and what is coherence?

19. Cohesion and coherence Cohesion and coherence have blurred lines • Cohesion well understood since Halliday & Hasan, 1976 (Kern, 2000: 80): ‘dependencies of surface features’ BUT coherence vague construct: (Lorenz, 1999: 55) • cohesion contributes to coherence with signalling language that creates logic and ‘shows path ahead’. Reader and writer both intrinsic to coherence (Bublitz, 1999; Lorenz, 1999: 2; Hoey, 2001: 31) • people ‘cohere’ with texts through interaction • reader’s knowledge schema about topic and text organisation of genre important (Bublitz, 1999)

20. Grades awarded for coherence and cohesion on Globalisation and HE essay A/B grade = 10 high grade [A, 1; B, 9] B grade tutor comments: Could sometimes make more appropriate transitions between sentences. C/D grade = 10 low grade [C, 9; D, 1] C grade tutor comments: You need to make use you use a variety of linking devices to make your essay more coherent and your argument more logical.

21. Descriptions of metadiscourse markers These descriptions follow Dafouz-Milne (2008) in Basturkmen and Van Randow (2014) Announcements –reference marker for future text Illocutionary markers – personifies the writer in the act of writing Reminders - backward marker to summarise, retake or expand on an argument Sequencers – marks logical sections of the argument Topicalisers – explicitly mark topic shift Code glossers – explain, expand, rephrase argument points Logical markers – express semantic and structural relationships between stretches of discourse.

22. Impact on textual metadiscourse on the reader Announcements – prepares the reader for propositional content Illocutionary markers – focuses the communicative act for the reader Reminders – consolidates propositional content Sequencers – guides the argument for the reader Topicalisers – makes argument easy to follow Code glossers – marks a common scheme of reference between reader and writer Logical markers – guides readers to pragmatic significance of additive (also) adversive (however) and conclusive (in sum) content

23. Examples of textual meta-discourse Announcements This paper mainly discuss the situation of students going abroad to get a higher degree. • The essay aims to argue that the adverse influence of globalization on higher education outweighs the benefits. Illocutionary Markers But in this essay, I will focus on cultural aspect, especially homogenization. • I will talk about how globalisation and higher education influence the job market on the both sides

24. Code glossers • Taking the dominant role of English as an example, almost all the internationally significant journals and academic systems utilize English as the lingua franca. • In other words, Exchanges and cooperation between the countries become closer. • it includes three aspects of globalisation[:] • In the realm of education, universities and host countries face new challenges and demands on many aspects, such as teaching qualities

25. Topicalisers • Historically, Chinese government played a very important role in setting up a standard for higher education. • In terms of European Union(UN), since the EEC Treaty was signed in 1957, the education system has experienced a constantly development from specific programmes. Sequencers • Secondly, the educational cooperation brings large financial benefits for developed countries. • On the other hand, English-language products dominate the international academic market.

26. Logical markers • Globalization […]which has made it easier for the students to go abroad for higher education and experience different cultural life. But other effects on studying abroad needs to be concerned as well. • Meanwhile, multinationalisation might be unmeaning for students study abroad and it becomes tougher for graduates to be employed. • Although there are some world-class universities in other countries such as Japan and some universities in China and Singapore are stepping to the world-class institutions, most of academic centers are in the North. • Consequently, the market-driven education will lose its educational meaning and produces imparity among institutions.

28. Findings – high, low grade distribution Reminders, Topicalisers, Illocutionary markers –not represented visually as below study threshold of 10 or less total instances. Equal distribution across the data set, irrespective of grade

29. Concessive markers

31. Examples of concessive relations and faulty signalling Concessive relation with faulty signalling • High grade example: ‘It will be argued that globalisation does help academic development of the whole world, but it also increases the gap between universities in developed countries and in developing countries.’ • High grade example: ‘Furthermore, although tertiary education in global market produces economic achievement, meanwhile, it also leads to a profit-oriented and commercial education.’ Faulty punctuation & form in concessive relations • Low grade example: ‘Globalisation bring both benefit and challenge to students and the job market, they must adjust their strategy so that they can make great development. ‘

32. Signal but no concession No concession pragmatically but with concessive signal, ‘while’, ‘despite’ Low grade examples: ‘One is the improvement of information technology, while these technologies, for instance, databases, website and a range of IT-based products, were used in all over the world.’ ‘Despite, there are problems…..’

33. Concession with two+ signals High grade example: ‘However, even though a wide range of literature that illustrates the challenges and facilitators is available for female educators, there has been little research reported on the practical solutions.’ ‘Nevertheless, despite the increasing opportunities for students and scholars to achieve advanced knowledge, globalized education also generates the drain of academic talents, economy in developing countries, as well as the indigenous cultures correspondingly.’ Low grade example: On the other hand, although students are not compulsive to take College English Test Band 4 and Band 6 (CET-4 and CET-6), they are still persuaded to take them.

34. Comparative analysis of NZ and Edinburgh findingsSimilarities NZ: […] few [2.6%] students marked or announced illocutionary intent: UoE: Same – only three students [1.2%] did this NZ: Little difference between high and low grade writing for frequency of meta-discourse. H=100, L=90 instances UoE: Same – H=249, L=261 instances NZ: Reminders and topicalisers were infrequent. 3/190; 4/190 instances, respectively. UoE: Same – 3/510, 10/510 instances, respectively NZ: ‘Concessive relations were frequently observed’ H= 1 per 131 words, L=1 per 150 words UoE: Same - H=1 per 20 words, L= 1 per 21.5 words)

35. Comparative analysis of NZ and Edinburgh findngsDifferences NZ: High grade writers used wider range of signals for concessive relations than low grade writers e.g. nevertheless, while, despite, in spite of UoE: Range of signals marking concession the same for high and low grade. NZ: High grade writers indicated a fraction (9%) of concessive relations without signalling whereas low grade did not. UoE: No examples of concessive relations without signalling NZ: Some student writers used personal belief statements (no statistics given) e.g, I/she/he thinks/believes. UoE: No examples of this finding in Edinburgh study.

36. Reason 1 for study findings - Academic Discourse input • Lack of illocutionary intent NZ: Lack of awareness of value of the cue UoE: Illocutionary intent similar to NZ study (2.6%) but much lower (1.2%). Discouraged in the Academic Discourse lecture input of EAP course at UoE ‘Traditionally the use of the personal pronoun 'I' to express your opinion has been discouraged in academic writing.’ http://aeo.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/Files/Academic%20Style/Academic%20Style.html In general, you might want to avoid words like "I", "me", "myself". A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore unnecessary to make this explicit. Not "In my opinion, this a very interesting study.” Instead "This is a very interesting study.“ Taken from Academic Discourse Lecture 10 – Academic Writing Style

37. Objective language Written academic language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. The main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic writing, in particular. Slide from Academic Discourse Lecture 10 – Academic Writing Style

38. Reason 2 for study findings - Academic Discourse input • Concessive relations frequently observed in high and low grade NZ: Awareness of value of presenting balanced arguments at PG level UoE: Almost 7 x more frequent and with almost equal use between the grades due to Academic Discourse lecture input of EAP course at UoE. ‘Another option, apart from refuting counterarguments, is to partially agree with the opposing view, or concede (admit) that it has some merit, before going on to present their (stronger) arguments against that view’ (On Concession, taken from from Academic Discourse Lecture 16 – Argumentation) Signals of refutation: However, ...But…On the other hand...Nevertheless...This merely...While this may be true,… (Taken from from Academic Discourse Lecture 16 – Argumentation)

39. Critical Balance You need to point out the flaws in the opposing case, but you should also acknowledge its strengths. You should emphasise the superiority of your own argument, but also should show you are aware of any weaknesses. Slide from Academic Discourse Lecture 16 – Argumentation

40. Reason 3 for study findings - Academic Discourse input • Wider range of coherence relation markers in high than low grade NZ: Sophisticated ability to use meta-discourse in argumentation UoE: No matched findings. • Due to same meta-discourse of argumentation input on Academic Discourse course BUT 2. NZ: 5 NES and 5 L2 English language users with up to 21 years domesticity in NZ comprised 10 high grade writers. “..research suggests English second language students may over-use cohesive devises, such as linking adverbials, or use them in different ways compared to English first language writers.” (Gardner and Nezi, cited in Basturkmen and van Randow, 2014, p. 15)

41. Conclusions Academic discourse instruction, and Chinese pre-masters’ students’ noticing and practice over 6 weeks has impacted in the following ways: • Frequent and consistent use of textual metadiscourse and rhetorical/coherence relations in high and low grade writers. • Much greater and consistent use of textual metadiscourse and rhetorical relations than in comparative study by Basturkmen and van Random Raising awareness of academic discourse has impacted on how sample population attempt to build coherence in argumentative writing Chinese students have responded consistently to academic discourse on 6 weeks of pre-masters’ EAP

42. Implications of learning experiences on EAP teaching 1. As problems still exist in both high and low grade writers with faulty form of concessive relations in argumentation and faulty use of markers, • Academic Discourse course development should reflect these challenges 2. As high grade students are able to manipulate use of multiple meta-discourse markers with an observed increase in perceived coherence and cohesion 3. As teachers/assessors are reluctant to comment on coherence and cohesion • Professional development in rhetoric competency in ‘fairly advanced’ EAP academic writing

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